

















































-BY 




/ 


J. H. CARPENTER, 


v?* 


9 , 

A RCHITECT AND C ONSTRUCTING fc UGIN&ER, 


L f 

HARTFORD, CONN. 


/E 50 Cents. 




- 

































Up to ^flpril, 1883 9 



Life and Accident Insurance Co. 


OF HARTFORD, CONN., 

Has Haid its JPolicy-Holders 

$ 8 , 000 , 000 . 

WRITES ALL DESIRABLE FORMS 


Life, Endowment, and Accident 

-POLICIES,- 

At LOWE R RATES than. 

Any other Sound Company IN THE WORLD. 


JAMES G. BattERSON, President. 

RODNEY DENNIS, Secretary. 

JOHN E. MORRIS, Assistant Secretary. 



















—BY— 


J. H. CARPENTER 

ii 

ARCHITECT AND CONSTRUCTING ENGINEER, 

118 Asylum St., Hartford, Conn. 



v 






APil 20 1883 

V no 

0p washing' 


HARTFORD, CONN.: 

Press of The Case, Lockwood & Brainard Company. 

1883. 




















Copyrighted , 1883, 

By J. H. Carpenter. 


!(■' 365 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

Architect and Engineer,.10 

Areas,.- 28 

Brick-Work,.21 

Cost of, - - .n.22 

Strength of, - -.28 

Stability of, - - -.24 

Bath-Room,.6 

Concrete, - 26 

Chimneys,.27 

Composition Roofs,.41 

Cradling,.17 

Cut-StoneWork,.19 

Dining-Room, - - -. 5 

Design of Buildings, - - - ^ - 7 

Drainage,.28 

Doors,.-.44 

Economy in Building,.12 

Excavations,- --------- 16 

Economy in use of Lumber, 33 

Filling and Varnishing,.47 

Form of Buildings,.7 

Foundations,.17 

Frame Buildings, -------- 37 

Coverings of,.38 

Floors, - - 42 

Deafening of,. 42 

Furnaces and Pipes, -------- 49 

Fire-Proof Buildings,.50 

Glass,.45 

Halls,.4 

Interior Decoration,.8 

Improvement of Old Buildings,.13 














iv CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

Insurance,.. - 14 

Iron-work,.31 

Joiner-Work,. 33 

Kitchen, -. 5 

Lien Laws,.14 

Lathing,.29 

Mortar,.25 

Planning,. 3 

Plans and Specifications,. 9 

Permits, ----------- 15 

Piling,.-.17 

Piers,.26 

Plastering,.29 

Partitions,. 39 

Plumbing, -.45 

Painting,.46 

Removal of Buildings,.15 

Roofs, - - - -.39 

Roof Coverings,.40 

Shingles,.40 

Sketches, -. 3 

Strength of Timber,.34 

Surveys, -.- 14 

Stone-Work, . ig 

Cost of,. 19 

Stairs, - - - -. 43 

Stoops, - - -. 43 

Terra Cotta,.20 

Tinning, ---------- 41 

Trusses,.36 

Ventilation and Warming, .4g 

Windows,. 44 


























LNTRODTJ CTORY. 


The subject of house building is of interest to all, even though they 
may not be in a condition, financially, at the present time to build. A 
few months or years may, however, so materially change the aspect of 
affairs as to render it possible. It is therefore well for all to anticipate 
the realization of a home of our own, and become familiar with the 
requisites of a good house ; it is certainly worth all the trouble taken to 
acquire it. 

The object of this treatise is to present only the most important facts 
about the practical work of building, to aid in securing the highest order 
of beauty in the art and workmanship, which shows cultured taste in a 
common-sense course of construction; and to prevent, if possible, the 
crowded effusions of ornament, and show that the most humble attempts 
are worthy of study and adaptation to laws of harmony and order. 

After considering briefly the preliminaries of building, the practical 
details will be considered in a general way, as hints in divisions of 
labor, and trade work, and in sub-divisions, so clearly marked that they 
can be readily applied where the class of work described is only to be 
partially used in building. 

Technicalities are avoided or explained that the hints may be under¬ 
stood by the non-professional as well as experts in the business. 

In explanations of methods of practice we do not define them as the 
only way, for in our experience we have found methods more or less 
opposed to these to accomplish equal results, by careful manipulation, 
but the rules given are those most generally used in several different 
sections of the country and have not failed to give satisfaction. 

As a rule, explanations of method are not given, because they are not 
necessary to the owner to assist him in judging of the work; but it is 
enjoined upon him to see that materials used are of proper qualities and 
well worked, if he would have permanent results and satisfactory finish. 

These hints about labor and quantities will enable any one with a little 
study to make approximate estimates of cost by charging to the labor the 
wages paid them, and for materials the local prices. It would be impossi¬ 
ble, without injustice to the trades, to state prices, as they fluctuate; but 
it will always be within the reach of those desiring prices to obtain them 
of any person in that business. 



“ VISTO, HAVE 


A TASTE” 


For what has Virro painted, built, and planted ? 
Only to show how many tastes he wanted. 

What brought Sir Visto’s ill-got wealth to waste ? 
Some demon whispered, “ Visto ! have a taste.” 
Ileav’n visits with a taste the wealthy fool, 

And needs no rod but Ripley with a rule. 

See ! sportive fate, to punish awkward pride, 

Bids Bubo build, and sends him such a guide, 

A standing sermon at each year’s expense, 

That never coxcomb reach munificence! 

You show us Rome was glorious, not profuse, 

And pompous buildings once were things of use. 
Yet shall (my lord) your just, your noble rules 
Fill half the land with imitating fools; 

Who random drawings from your sheets shall take, 
And of one beauty many blunders make: 

Load some vain church with old theatric state ; 
Turn arcs of triumph to a garden gate; 

Reverse your ornaments, and hang them all 
On some patch’d dog-hole ek’d with ends of wall; 
Then clap four slices of pilaster on’t, 

Then, lac'd with bits of rustic, makes a front. 

Shall call the wind thro’ long arcades to roar, 

Proud to catch cold at a Venetian door; 

Conscious they act a true Palladian part; 

And if they starve, they starve by rules of art. 

Oft have you hinted to your brother Peer 
A certain truth, which many buy too dear; 
Something there is more needful than expense, 

And something previous ev’n to taste—’tis sense; 
Good sense, which only is the gift of£heav’n, 

And tho’ no science, fairly worth the seven: 

A light, which in yoursdlf you must perceive: 
Jones and Le Notre have it not to give. 

To build, to plant, whatever you intend. 

To rear the column, or the arch to bend, 

To swell the terras, or to sink the grot, 

In all, let nature never be forgot; 

But treat the goddess like a modest fair, 

Nor overdress, nor leave her wholly bare; 

Let not each beauty ev’rywhere be spy’d 
Where half the skill is decently to hide. 

He gains all points who pleasingly confounds, 
Surprises, varies, and conceals the bounds. 


—Epistle IV, Pope. 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


SKETCHES. 

To begin properly every person contemplating building should com¬ 
mence to plan on paper , no matter how crudely, their ideas of their 
requirements in the kind of building wanted, figuring the sizes, and making 
memorandums of anything thought necessary for special use or finish in 
each room. 

You know your own necessities better than another can tell you, and 
it is not the duty of an architect to invent necessities for you, but to 
gather up the threads of your wants and embody them in construction, 
detail, and finish as an expert. It is a mistake to adapt your wants to a 
pre-arrangefi design;—get the requisites of plan in order first, and it is 
the evidence of being a good architect for one to draw these requisites 
into the harmony of a good structure. 

All alterations of arrangement should be made in the sketches. The 
greatest mistake, as many have found to their cost, is to make alterations 
while the building is being erected. 

These sketches, when completed, are of the greatest value in determin¬ 
ing the working plans and designs. They are not expected to give 
accurate ideas of construction or finish, therefore persons often feel their 
inability to make them, because from them they are not able to realize 
how the buildings will look when completed. 

As this is particularly the architect’s work, we feel it a pleasure to 
offer our assistance in making perspective sketches, which will show the 
appearance of the structure when completed, and offer also such advice 
in consultation in adapting your ideas in the sketches to your wants and 
the situation as may be necessary. 

After the sketches are all satisfactory, all alterations made and your 
wants provided for, it is then time to make plans and working drawings, 
and not before. 

PLANNING. 

Having determined to plan a house, and commenced sketching, it is 
necessary not only to consider the rooms we want as mentioned in article 



4 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


on sketches, but to consider the portion of the house as to sunlight, that 
all the rooms, if possible, shall obtain it. Next as to airy breezes, and 
placing the openings so as to get all that may be beneficial, not only of 
clear, cool air from northern exposures, but also, and more particularly, 
the balmy breezes of the south. Of course this is not always possible on 
a city lot locked in between great masses of buildings, but these points 
must be kept iu view when planning, as far as they apply. 

The views of landscape in some situations are also an important con¬ 
sideration to be looked after, and advantages of views should be given to 
as many rooms as possible. 

Comfort, convenience, and pleasure must each be considered, and though 
we know considerable twisting about of rooms is necessary to accomplish 
it, yet with these principles before us we do not see why an owner cannot 
arrange a plan to suit himself without copying after some other house 
which does not exactly suit. We advise the consideration of other 
people’s successes in building and obtaining comforts, but would have you 
avoid their errors in ignoring these rules when they started. 

And to aid in solving this problem we will consider the requisites of a 
few rooms, leaving the rest required to be put in in the order in which 
they may suggest themselves. And if in our theory we seem to any to 
avoid the more humble cottage, we would say, as far as a person’s means 
will permit, the principles apply completely, and yet suggest more extensive 
outlay to those who can afford it. 

HALLS. 

If the first impression on entering one’s home is pleasant, the sensa¬ 
tion of pleasure will follow one through the entire house; if to the contrary, 
a much greater amount of enjoyment must follow to counteract that effect. 
Apply this truth to the hall, and its force is seen at once. 

An oblong passage without architectural beauty, cold and cheerless, 
without any furniture excepting a rack and a chair, makes one hurry 
through without a feeling of welcome or rest; while a furnished hall, as a 
part of the house, properly heated, and with such additions as will make 
it inviting, will prove a much greater addition to our enjoyment than we 
think. 

Our idea of a hall is as a rotunda, giving access to each apartment and 
seemingly a part of them; stairways subservient to it, and not the princi¬ 
pal feature, except the reception and other rooms be on the second story, 
which is not very common in this section of the country. 

A hall may rightly become the social center of the house, and for 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


5 


hundreds of years held its position as such in old castles and homesteads. 
It is by far the most economical and convenient arrangement to have it so. 
It may be two stories in height, or even extend to the roof, and have 
balustrades to each story. The addition of a fire-place, where it can be 
added, completes the picture of comfort. 

DINING-ROOM. 

This room, if arranged conveniently, with easy access to butler’s pantry, 
with china closets, dressers, etc., fitted in it, is the mater familias' paradise. 
It should be well shut off from the kitchen, and kitchen servants should 
not have access to it except by way of the pantries, through appropriate 
openings. It should always have an open fire-place, for use in weather 
when heaters are not in use, and also in connection with them to add 
cheerfulness. 

A conservatory adjoining would be an abundant source of supply of 
those additions which attract the mind from things of ordinary life. The 
furnishing and decoration should be quiet, light, and suggestive. Other 
things can be said, but as more abundant means suggest one’s own enjoy¬ 
ment, we will confine the remarks to homes of the majority. 

In the arrangement of rooms it is always best to place a dining-room 
east and west, that it may have the morning and evening light, and be 
cool, without the glare and heat of the day. In most houses it cannot be 
set so as to have both, but if either can be obtained, the morning light is 
preferable. 

KITCHEN. 

Suggestive to the pater familias of enjoyments which cater to the greater 
number of senses by a large majority, but a domain which a man usually 
hates to enter. 

Our idea is that a kitchen is not usually all it should be, when we con¬ 
sider of what importance it is to the household, and that few of the beauties 
of art in building or decoration are ever introduced into it. Owners 
should provide more liberal expenditures in this part of the house, which 
is sure to pay good interest. It is well to commence with the motto, 
“A place for everything, and everything in its place,”—and provide the 
places. 

A kitchen, to begin with, should be well lighted and well aired by large 
windows opening on every side possible. The ceiling should not be low, 
and ventilation should also be secured by way of the chimney, that savory 
smells may be drawn off and not left to spread through the house. 

1 * 


ti 


HINTS ON BUILDING. - 


The range and fire-place should be as perfect, and large hearths in 
front of them. Shelves over them should be avoided as a catch-all, which 
collect dust, to some future annoyance, but hooks should be in handy 
places; shelves should be provided, but in other appropriate places. 
Dressers , enclosed with glass doors, fitted with drawers, cutting-boards, 
suitable shelving, and nests of boxes. Sinks should be large and deep, 
with drip-trays at side, and separate sinks provided for dish-washing in or 
near the buttery, all connected with hot and cold water. 

Wastes to garbage-boxes should be arranged, admitting of immediate 
and ready use, that all refuse may be thrown out as it accumulates, and 
that food will not appear as a garnished exodus from an assortment of 
peels and rubbish. 

The floors should not be cold, and thereby injurious to health. If 
made of wmod, they should be double, for warmth; if covered, there is 
material made, of any desired width, which will cover a floor without 
seams. 

The exposed walls should be wainscoted to the height of chair-backs, 
and decorative dadoes can be formed of oil-cloths of appropriate pattern; 
other walls painted in cool neutral tints. 

If the arrangements of building do not admit of a separate laundry, 
then let the tubs be arranged with covers, to form tables. Soapstone is 
preferable to wood, for many reasons. 

Laundrys should, if possible, be a separate arrangement, with hot and 
cold water appliances, and separate stoves for heating irons, etc., and 
should be well lighted and airy. 

All boxing in of tubs, boilers, and sinks should be avoided as far as 
possible, and much trouble with vermin will thus be prevented. Also see 
to it that the plastering extends to floors behind all closets, surbases, etc., 
and that nooks for vermin be effectually closed up when building. 

BATH-ROOM. 

A bath-room is a necessity, and all suites of rooms should be provided 
with them, complete in every detail and attractive. It is so common to 
put them off in some out-of-the-way corner that it is often a puzzle to find 
them. As usually constructed they are a nuisance, and distance lends 
enchantment. But that they should be so constructed is all wrong: con¬ 
venience is the first consideration; plenty of sunlight, air, and ventilating 
appliances the next. 

Complex plumbing apparatus is not necessary, nor special patented 
conveniences, in order to secure comfort, but the cheapest as well as the 





HINTS ON BUILDING. 


1 


more expensive can be rendered of service, free from obnoxious associa¬ 
tions, and desirable, if more attention were given to the proper understand¬ 
ing of them by owners. And an architect who fails to impress on his 
client the proper necessities, and provide them, does him a grievous injury. 

FORM OF BUILDINGS. 

The form of buildings results from their internal arrangement of rooms; 
the design is subject to nearly all the styles of architecture. Some forms 
of structure look better finished in some styles than in others; and the 
form often suggests the style. 

A square-built house has many attractions to some because of the con¬ 
ventional simplicity and square effect of every room, and the large, roomy 
halls and stairways; but it is far from attracting others by its external 
appearance in comparison with the irregular-shaped dwellings, which add 
those pleasant surprises in form, filling up blanks, hiding shady nooks, 
tempting investigation and presenting attractive approaches. Pleasing 
views are also obtained from rooms which are cut off. Sunlight and 
breezes find windows to enter by, and pleasing effects of designs show to 
the best advantage. 

The difference in cost in relative style and finish when completed is so 
small that the majority prefer to pay it; and the difference in appearance 
counterbalances the actual cost by a large percentage. 

DESIGN OF BUILDINGS. 

The design of a building in many respects represents the character of 
the projector. It is surprising how the designer intuitively incorporates 
the characteristics of another into the design, utterly forgetful of himself, 
and the owner wonders how it was so wonderfully like his ideal, as it 
grows under another’s hand, while the whole art and study of the designer 
is to obtain that very result—to study those peculiarities of the owner’s 
ideal; and that the more it is adapted to his character the more likely is 
it to prove a source of pleasure to him as an occupant;—keeping in view 
also the other points which govern the design: 

1st. The legitimate influence of materials must be considered, and 
based, as a rule, on a knowledge of style and precedents. It is useless to 
ignore the fact of their influence. We ma} r try to conceal or counterfeit 
material as we like, the logic of fitness confutes us; the results betray the 
deceptions. 

2d. The relation of purpose and arrangement to design; for a building 
is faulty in design which fails to show its use. 


8 


HINTS ON BUILDINO. 


3d. The structural conditions, truthfully shown, form a basis for the 
architect’s highest ingenuity. There are pleasing effects in any building 
which shows its ability to sustain itself to its use. And, as is too often the 
case, the construction should not be concealed nor false systems of sup¬ 
port used just for the sake of giving the appearance of strength. A little 
crack in the joints is a fatal mark against it, and has the unhappy faculty 
of appearing much larger than it is. 

4th. The relation of ornamentation to construction has greater claims 
upon us than most designers are willing to give, because it prevents the use 
of flattering pieces of work which true taste at once prohibits. The only true 
theory is to ornament construction; after that is done all other ornamenta¬ 
tion must be subservient, or it will prove to be a blemish. Over-dressing 
shows a weakness of character: nobility in art is the highest aim. The 
ancient temples a lover of classics and art will ponder over and view in 
awe, observing the grand effects of construction, so simple and so true; 
and as soon as the eye begins to examine the details of construction it is 
entranced with the wonders of the ornamentation which seem to open up 
in every direction,—in no way obtrusive, entirely subservient to the con¬ 
struction; and surely their examples of the true theory of ornamentation 
are worthy of our following. 

INTERIOR DECORATION 

Is gradually gaining popularity, and examples of taste and refinement 
are now to be found in the houses of those in moderate circumstances as 
well as in those of the wealthy. 

The methods of uneducated decorators are now being replaced with 
studied designs, which show elegence in taste and adaptation to their uses 
and situation. 

Judicious decoration in oil painting, distemper, fresco, water-glass, etc., 
all have their place, but should not be brought too prominently forward 
in place of the more elegant achievements in relief decoration now 
becoming more extensively used and within the reach of even quite 
limited purses. The genius of invention has provided resources, besides 
the hand processes of carving, which, used in combination, produce those 
happy results of which the owners of ancestral halls are so justly proud. 

Nothing less than stern necessity should compel an architect to forego 
in interiors the infinitely various and charming effects produced by light 
glancing on raised, rounded, and re-entering surfaces in addition to the 
ordinary methods of pleasing the eye by colors and lines. 

It is usual for owners to plan the building without regard to future 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


!> 


decorations, trusting to happy circumstances to suggest the style and 
finish, alter all the wood-work, etc., is in place; but it would be far 
better to have the designs ot the interior made at the beginning, that the 
wood-work may be gotten ready for future additions, and harmonized 
with them. Every house should be rendered artistic and harmonious in its 
decoration and furnishing. 

If the art work ot our homes is treated as a separate thing and left to 
chance conceptions, it will be all false, having no realistic life, and quite 
likely to result in a mongrel worthy of being consigned to oblivion with 
the conceited so-called esthetes. 

The selection of goods should be in true taste and color, and to suit, 
and not because they are an exact copy of some one else’s. If not found 
in stock in the market, direct appeal to a manufacturer should be made and 
followed up until the goods are supplied, it being well to remember 
manufacturers are glad of opportunities to suit enquirers, without adding 
additional cost to the production over the price of other goods of the 
same quality. Let the enquirer also be consistent, make careful prepara¬ 
tion of designs, and then maintain them, even against pretty things, 
which are apt to be only a temptation to be afterwards regretted. 

It is not necessary because a design is elaborated that it should be more 
expensive, but a reason why it should be less, and a surety that value is 
received for value given. So many cheaper goods are now in market 
ready for use which will give fine effects, that we advise all parties to give 
decoration serious consideration, and when it is possible to obtain them, 
to do so. 

The finishing coat of plastering can be tinted in colors before it is 
applied, making a soft, beautiful finish and not subject to peeling off as 
oil paint improperly applied. It is not necessary to follow the conven¬ 
tional white walls; tinted walls are quite as handsome, applied this way, 
as expensive painted ones. It can also be mixed with glue, so as to be 
already sized, and will take the oil colors more evenly, and often save an 
extra coat of color, besides making a harder and polished surface. If it 
is designed to be papered, some expense in plastering can be saved by 
usiug a cheaper finish well adapted for it. 

It is very desirable that owners should give their architect more 
liberty of design, and be more willing to allow them some liberty 
in design and cost. We are always more ready to make additional 
designs to reduce expense than to attempt to remodel a costly one. If 
designs cannot be produced complete at prices to suit, according to 
your ideas, it is better at once to decide to pay the cost and complete it 


10 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


or else abandon it, andtry another design less costly to finish. A good 
design half completed and without its proper finish is a blemish and easily 
detected by an artistic eye. 

PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS. 

It is a great mistake to attempt to put up a building without complete 
plans, specifications, and working drawings, having complete technical 
and legal descriptions of labor and the materials to be used. 

Carefully studied construction drawings enable the builder to calculate 
accurately the amount and sizes of material, and the labor required, saving 
all waste. 

The cost of plans and specifications is comparatively a trifling percentage 
of their value, and is in proportion always to the amount to be expended 
in building. In numerous ways several times their cost is saved, and a 
better structure is secured in design and workmanship. 

Written agreements are a proper and necessary accompaniment to the 
specifications, and a part of them, whether the work be contracted at a 
stipulated price or by day’s work. Let no man foolishly suppose, for a 
moment, that a verbal agreement is of any value as a building contract. 

All parts of the work as well as prices should be stipulated, the 
manner of making payments, insurance clauses, method of arbitration 
agreed upon, etc., in a legally written paper, setting forth also that all 
work of addition or alteration shall be in writing and a part of the agree¬ 
ment; that the work shall be in full, fair compliance with the terms of the 
plans and specifications and subject to the approval of a superintendent, 
whose authority shall not be a matter of dispute. A proper agreement 
waives suspicions, settles numerous disputes, and becomes a matter of 
pleasure between the contracting parties. 

THE ARCHITECT AND ENGINEER. 

In every true architect there are, as it were, two individuals: the artist, 
who by his imaginative genius conceives and combines solids and voids in 
harmonies of design, his mind grasping in advance of execution all the 
effects, and detecting in his study all surroundings that will add to or 
detract from its beauty or utility, thus bringing out the building to its best* 
advantages; and the constructing engineer, who must understand all the 
requisites of proper and substantial construction, from theories estab¬ 
lished upon his own experience and that of other masters, be personally 
familiar with strength of materials, their weight and resistance to direct 
and transverse strains; must arrange them also to accomplish their 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


11 


purpose without waste of substance, and yet in such uniformity with his 
conceived design as to be a part of it. 

Before science subjects him to the rigor of mathematical calculations, 
his artistic genius rises to conceptions which feeling alone should judge; 
and as a constructor he makes those conceptions a reality in form and 
power. 

He must be familiar with the technical requisites of all the trades and 
manufacture connected with building, and a judge of all work done from 
that of the humblest mechanic in the drains to the high art of the esthetic 
decorator, and the finishers of all that is to add beauty in finish. 

Much more can be said, and is said, which but faintly outlines the diver¬ 
sity of accomplishments he must in mind, body, and soul be in harmony 
with, besides the practical every-day work of the mechanic. 

He must not only plan, design, and arrange the work in detail, but give 
it his practical and personal supervision until completed, and draw the 
minds of all men engaged in the execution of it into harmony with his 
conceptions that they may assist him in completing them. 

The high price of materials and labor has necessitated more thorough 
study of engineering than was required of architects in past times; then 
it was sufficient for him to simply design and direct its fulfillment, 
materials being abundant and labor low-priced. This being much more 
congenial, leads many to forget the more irksome study of the abstruse 
theories of construction; but now the owners are not satisfied, and should 
not be, until assured to a mathematical certainty that their works are 
sufficient in strength and durability. 

The most satisfactory results in building are obtained also when an 
owner consults his architect in perfect confidence, even against the most 
decided objections and the wishes of others, who, if they have no personal 
motive, are too often riding hobbies. If innovations or changes are 
necessary, the merits of the case are quite assured of proper consideration 
in a good designer’s hand, for such an one is not arbitrarily wedded to any 
hobbies of his own, but will at all times seek to combine the wishes of 
the owner into harmony with the structure. 

A contractor understanding his business will seldom work adversely to 
the architect, but find it a pleasure to work with him in securing the best 
practical results. 

The charge is sometimes unjustly made against architects of receiving- 
commissions or bribes from builders on account of work done under them. 
That such is the case in somq instances is well known, and all architects 
having the success of their business in view, sincerely regret that it is done, 


12 


TTTNTS ON BUILDING. 


hold it in abhor ranee, and stand ready socially and professionally to 
ostracise any architect accepting- it, or a builder offering it. The high 
dignity and honor of their profession is conscientiously maintained by 
such to their credit, even when sometimes poorly compensated for their 
labor by the owners. 

It being justly and properly assumed that those who offer a commission 
are of a character not to be trusted to carry out a contract, and, as the 
sequel shows, are ever ready, when a bribe fails, to destroy the confidence 
of the owner in his architect, fearing also to meet an honest supervision 
of their contracts and most ready to take advantage of an owner’s confi¬ 
dence in them, we therefore strongly advise all owners that, having the 
plans and specifications once adopted and work begun, they consider 
no changes whatever except in the presence of the architect. This pro¬ 
cedure will ensure safety against extortion and allow an open investiga¬ 
tion of all the necessities of the case. 

ECONOMY IN BUILDING. 

The aggregate expense of building in proportion to results has usually 
been so enormous that many persons are discouraged from attempting it. 

The large startling items and the possibility of innumerable bills of 
extras coming afterwards show the necessity for deliberate action in 
getting ready before the job is undertaken. 

With some there is a tendency to over-estimate the capacity of money 
in building, and they are apt to build beyond their means, and put in many 
things recommended by friends and contractors which could be well 
dispensed with, with the idea that it is only going to cost a little more; and 
if there were not so many of those littles to be included in the items, few 
buildings would exceed the first amount of outlay agreed upon. Others 
are fearful of greater expense than they intended to incur, and under¬ 
estimate their wants, and, seeing the want of many things afterwards, 
become quite as readily a victim for extras. 

None of this is necessary; plans and specifications, fully considered and 
deliberated upon, are the true basis for economical building. 

Deliberation as to time of building is another source of economy. 
Never build in a hurry, unless circumstances which will cover the addi¬ 
tional expense force you There are always times and seasons when 
materials can be bought cheaper, and labor be hired for less, than at 
others; and hundreds of dollars can be saved by taking advantage of cir¬ 
cumstances which tend either directly'or indirectly to diminish the cost of 
materials. Ordering goods ahead in plenty of time allows manufacturers 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


18 


advantages they are always willing to share with you, and your architect 
will be of great advantage to you in assisting and advising you in pur¬ 
chasing. lie is most likely to know where they are to be found, and if 
not he has the most ready means for finding out. 

In the following descriptions of materials and necessary additions to a 
good house, the reader must bear in mind that we are treating in a general 
way of buildings costing from one thousand to one hundred thousand 
dollars; many things referred to, a man of limited means could not afford 
except in a modified way, and our space does not admit of elaborate 
descriptions of every way in which the results may be accomplished. But 
our intention is to call attention to necessaries which are too often left out 
and cause disappointment. 

To be sure, all these things create additional expense in building, and 
are generally omitted on that account; and we are too often required of 
our clients to produce more of a building for a stipulated amount than 
could possibly be done if the building is properly put up and the neces¬ 
saries added. The best economy does not lie in the fancied saving of 
money at the outset, but in the adoption of wise plans; and when a man 
tells you he can put up a cheaper building for you “without so much 
plans and specifications,” or by more modified ones made by himself, make 
up } r our mind at once that he can only do it by taking advantage of your 
inexperience in building, and “skinning” you of many comforts, con¬ 
veniences, and material actually necessary for the durability of the house. 

Cheap houses, fully covering the necessities of a family, are just as 
readily planned as more expensive ones; just as easily limited in the 
hundreds as in the thousands. Necessities for such a house are also to 
have just as much care in proportion. Better far to do with less material 
than to try and get along with poorer quality; expensive repairs and dis¬ 
comfort rob you of more than the difference of expense,—and the varied 
experience of an architect will help you to use just what you require, and 
secure you the highest enjoyment of what you are able to pay for. 

. IMPROVEMENT OF OLD BUILDINGS. 

An old house, well built, pleases more, with the necessary repairs and 
improvements judiciously added, than many a costly new one. 

There are often many good points in the surroundings and plans of an 
old house which have grown up with it, and which may be adopted as parts 
worth preserving, and the additions may be made for holding the whole 
in keeping with the original design. Care should be taken to keep 
ruthless hands off buildings endeared to us by associations, with their 
2 


14 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


surroundings oi familiar objects, which few but ourselves can appreciate. 
If some changes are perhaps necessary, have them treated with utmost 
care. Though some natures may not sympathize with you in the ilesire 
to preserve apparently useless relics, there are others who can, and regrets 
come too late if we permit wanton waste, which curtails our enjoyments 
and perhaps destroys all we held dear in the associations of our old home. 

LIEN LAWS. 

In most of the States, including Connecticut, the lien laws make it a 
necessity for the owner to be assured that all bills of labor and material 
used in the erection of his buildings are paid by the contractor, as his 
property is liable, for sixty days from the completion of the work per¬ 
formed and the material furnished, for all amounts due, even if it has been 
already paid for by the owner to a contractor. And it is a wise and 
safe course for the contractor to furnish the owner with all bills for 
materials bought by him for the building, and for the owner to pay them 
personally, taking receipts “ in full for all claims to date,” and also to pre¬ 
sent pay-rolls and bills for all labor, etc., furnished by himself, to the 
owner for payment as the work progresses. 

This course will ensure the contractor of sufficient means to prosecute 
his work, and a prompt payment of bills for materials, which improves his 
credit, and also assures the owner against losses. Mutual confidence 
thus established is the cause of very pleasant business relations between 
all parties, and ensures the success of the contractor as much if not more 
than anything else. 

INSURANCE. 

As a mattor of policy and protection against losses, one of the parties 
to the agreement should keep in force a builder’s risk of insurance, for the 
benefit of all parties concerned, to the full amount of the building con¬ 
tracts. 

SURVEYS. 

The contracts for beginning all made, aud everything ready, the prop¬ 
erty should be properly surveyed, setting all building-lines, and stakes at 
all corners of the building, and on these stakes the levels, from the curb¬ 
line of the street, as all heights and depths are determined from that point. 

Erom these stakes the joiner sets profiles for the masons to excavate 
by and set the foundations. Once started true and level, the upper works 
are all the more apt to come together and in place and prevent unsightly 
disfigurements. 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


15 


PERMITS. 

The city ordinances require that application shall be made by the owners 
to the Common Council for a permit to build, which is referred to a license 
committee. 

The application should mention whether of brick or frame, and request 
that “it be referred to the committee with power” (to grant), and much 
time will be saved in obtaining the application by reason of the necessary 
reference ending with the committee and not required to be referred back 
for the action of the Council. 

Plans and specifications are then required to be submitted for approval 
to the Commissioner of Buildings or Fire Marshal, who sees that special 
ordinances relating to foundations, party-walls, supports, fire-coping, fire- 
escapes, areas, etc., are complied with. 

Permits must also be applied for to Street Commissioners for removing 
sidewalks and placing material in the streets, also for permission to con¬ 
nect with sewers, city water-pipes, etc.; two hours’ notice being also 
necessary to the City Engineer for the inspectors to supervise the breaking 
into and connection of pipes. 

The water connections are usually all made by the city water-works, 
and the pipes extended as far as building-lines. 

The obtaining of proper permits is very little trouble and is for the 
general public good, and will save annoyance afterwards. We hope to 
see regular building-laws soon adopted and in force, which have proved 
of so much benefit in cities where they are in use. 

REMOVAL OF BUILDINGS. 

The success of house-movers in removing old buildings and passing 
almost insurmountable obstacles has led them to attempt almost anything in 
that line which may present itself, and brick blocks are now quite as easily 
moved as frame buildings. We would not advise an owner to attempt it 
except with an experienced mover, as it is a business that has to be 
learned, and there are many precautions to take in reference to the general 
construction, position of chimneys, etc. Many a building which would 
otherwise have to be torn down can be saved this way and put on inex¬ 
pensive property. 

When moving a building bodily a mason is engaged to make openings 
in the foundations for needles (timbers), clearing the way of obstructing 
walls, and getting new foundations ready. All material of old buildings 
taken down should at once be properly assorted, cleaned, and piled in a 
suitable place on the premises, ready for use, and all refuse immediately 
removed. 


16 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


EXCAVATIONS. 

Excavations for buildings must always be of sufficient depth to ensure 
against the action of frost,—an average of four feet. Greater 'depths must 
be determined by the requirements of basements, cellars, and the nature 
of the soil to be built upon. 

The size of excavation should be one foot wider each way than, the 
actual size of building, to admit of the mason using tools in setting the 
stone and fitting the joints with mortar, or plastering the face of the walls. 
After this is levelled off, trenches are to be dug for footings, twice the 
thickness of the cellar walls, to the depth of one foot below the cellar 
bottoms. 

If proper soil for building upon is gained, a good ramming with an iron 
weight will considerably harden the earth and settle it more than a great 
many tons of stone-work built quietly into place. 

Before building it is necessary to take precaution against uneven 
bearings, and search out all soft spots of quick-sand, marl, etc. Excavate 
them and fill them in with a concrete of broken stone. Borings should be 
made at several places to ascertain the nature of the sub-strata of earth 
from four to eight feet in depth, according to the weight of building to go 
upon it. A strata of this thickness, if it proves good, will hold an 
ordinary building even when a softer strata is under; but should the 
building be high and massive the ground must be strengthened by piling. 

If the ground prove soft, of a loamy nature, recourse should be had to 
cradling , or a good broad footing of concrete. Should it prove watery or 
very soft, piling must be done to secure a firm foundation. Made ground 
should not be built upon, but excavations made to solid bottom. 

It must be remembered that all earth is compressible, the main object 
being to secure an equal settlement. The settlement continues for some 
time, but is checked sooner by adopting the precautions referred to. 

When excavating, lay aside, for a future top dressing, all the top soil that 
may be needed, piled up one side, and also throw out and leave on the 
bank sufficient earth to fill in around walls after they are built; this 
should be done while building to prevent the trenches filling with water. 

The cost of excavating depends upon the nature of the soil, and is usually 
estimated by the cubic yard; and then success in performing the task 
depends upon the energy and perseverance of the superintendent, and 
the advantages of surrounding circumstances. 

The following data will enable any one to approximate the cost of 
excavating: 

One man can shovel out ten yards of sand or loam per day, that does 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


17 


not require picking. If it requires loosening, one man to pick and two to 
shovel can throw out twenty yards of earth. If the soil is of clay and 
not very hard, it requires one man to pick for each shoveler, for each ten 
yards; harder clay, or a mixture of stone, necessitates more help to do 
the same amount of work. If the earth has to he removed by wheel¬ 
barrows, it requires one wheelbarrow to each shoveler for every seventy- 
five feet, on good runs of plank. If the earth is to be carted it requires 
one cart to each shoveler for every 1,000 feet of hauling. In fairly regu¬ 
lated work the men are actually engaged only two-thirds of the time. 

These estimates are based upon actual experience in building operations, 
and all allowances made for straightening banks, cutting out for wings, and 
grading the earth to levels. Rough work in embankments will amount 
to three times as much. 

PILING. 

If piles are driven they should be in rows and sufficient in number for 
the weight of superstructure: one at least to every eight tons in weight, 
and in position to give good width of bearings. Piles with flat ends drive 
quite as well as pointed ones, but pointed ones with iron shoes pass 
obstructions better and are preferred. If not pointed true they will not 
drive straight, and if intended to drive close against the next one the 
pointing is made so as to cause it to hug the next one all the way down. 
Besides shoes, the heads should be fitted with rings to prevent splitting. 
The heads of piles should be cut off at a depth of at least one foot below 
water level, to keep them submerged.^ and cribbing be built on to receive 
the footings. Allowance must be made for elastic reaction of soil, as 
they will settle back to bed when weight is applied. Hemlock trees are 
the cheapest and best for piles. 

CRADLING, OR CRIBBING, 

Is a combination of timbers crossing each other to form a bed for the 
masonry, and should be framed on to piles and notched into each other 
not more than one-fourth their thickness, and pinned or bolted. The 
spaces are filled in with broken stone, and grouted with liquid cement 
mortar. 

FOUNDATIONS. 

A volume written on this subject alone would not cover its importance, 
but these hints are all our space will permit, and we particularly caution 
you that since the foundation is at the bottom, it will prove the root of all 
evil if not a good one, and must not be slighted if you would avoid the 
principal source of unsightly cracks inside and outside of the building. 

2 * 


18 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


It is not enough to trundle in a few large stones, scatter a little mortar 
here and there, and with seeming anxiety get out of the ditch as soon as 
possible, with little thought of how much depends on the contents of 
that ditch, and the way the materials are combined for good or for evil. 

Footings should be of broken stone, rammed into the trench, and grouted 
with liquid cement mortar, so that it will set into a solid mass; or of 
dimension-stone laid cross-wise to the walls and well bedded in mortar. 

The walls should be of stone, below ground at least, though brick is 
sometimes used. Where stone walls are used below ground and brick 
above, it would be well to project the extra thickness of the stone walls 
out into the bank, so that the inner face is flush ; also over the stone-work 
lay a damp course, of tar and sand, spread over the wall to prevent the 
suction of water from the earth by the brick-work. 

If the foundations are of brick they should be commenced in broad 
footing courses twice the thickness of walls and racked in to the thickness 

of the required walls. All brick-work under ground should be laid in all- 

\ 

cement mortar, and plastered a good coat on the outside next to the bank. 
The thickness must depend upon the super-structure, and be at least four 
inches thicker above the ground than the upper walls, and eight inches 
thicker under ground. 

STONE-WORK. 

Stonewalls under ground are usually built of good rubble-work; that 
is, of good shaped quarried building stone, roughly squared, bedded, and 
bonded, laid up in courses a foot higH. and through-stones built in every 
three feet in each course, all spaces filled in with spalls or chips of stone 
and mortar. All joints of work exposed to view are slushed full of 
mortar, or pointed, as desired. This kind of wall is strong if well built; 
if not, most serious results from settlements are likely to occur from action 
of frost and rains. 

A better wall of stone is formed of blocks more carefully squared and 
regular^ bonded, every stone over-lapping, and through-stones more 
plentifully used. A wall built this way will prove more than twice as 
strong as a rubble-wall. All buildings of any weight or size should have 
foundations laid this way in preference to thicker walls laid the other way, 
as thick walls are only faced on the outside, and seldom well bonded in 
the center. 

The mortar used should be mixed with portions of cement from one- 
third to one-half, according to the nature of the ground—whether damp or 
dry. And if ground is watery then all cement should be used, and a coat 
of cement mortar outside will save much trouble from dampness. 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


10 


The thickness of stone walls depends upon the superstructure, and varies 
from sixteen to twenty-eight inches for ordinary houses— 

Foundations for buildings 20 feet in height, not less than 1.6 inches. 


a 

a 

u 

25 


a 

a 

20 

a 

a 

a 

a 

35 

a 

It 

a 

24 

a 

a 

a 

a 

55 

a 

a 

a 

28 

a 


This will make them as a rule eight inches thicker than the upper walls. 
Walls next to street fronts must be four inches thicker against vibrations 
of passing loads. Long walls should be braced with buttresses. All 
other kinds of buildings require special study of the constructing engineer, 
to determine the thickness and method of construction. 

The strength of stone is different in dry or wet soils. Sandstone 
thoroughly wet will sustain only half as much as a dry stone. Stones will 
crack with half their crushing loads, 100 tons,per square foot, so it is not 

a good practice to load them over twenty tons per square foot. 

— * 

COST OF STONE-WORK 

Varies so much from the changes of prices at quarries for the rough 
material, that it is not possible to give an approximate estimate, it vary¬ 
ing fifty per cent, within a radius of twenty miles; and labor depending 
on the care of construction. In each building it must be sought for 
separately. 

CUT-STONE WORK. 

The commonest necessities in a brick house are cut-stone sills, lintels, 
and water-table. To these are added cut-stone string-courses, architraves, 
paneled dados, angle quoins, etc., cut to represent purposes of construc¬ 
tion, sometimes plain and sometimes richly carved in style and finish to 
suit the taste of the designer. 

All stone trimmings which project from the walls, such as sills, water- 
table, and string-courses, should be cut with a wash , or bevel top, and 
with a drip on under side, or throated , as commonly called, to prevent the 
water from running back on walls and making streaks at the corners of 
the stone, as often noticed on the fronts of buildings. 

Sills should always be cut with lugs, which are level beds at each end 
on top of the stone for brick jambs to start from. It is very common 
to see an ugly joint of mortar here and there, or a sliver of brick inserted, 
which is done to save the trivial cost of five cents per foot. 

Lintels are beams of stone over openings, to support superstructures, and 
should always be relieved from accidental cracking by discharging-arches 
in the walls. 


20 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


Ashlar is laid up either in courses or broken work: 

In coursed work the stone is all of an even height and in a variety of 
lengths; the joints are set close and pointed in mortar, or channeled, ac¬ 
cording to the style of finish. 

Broken work is square or zig-zag. The square is of promiscuous sizes 
and set close joint; the zig-zag is of irregular shape and angles, and each 
stone is fitted to its place and the joints raised and pointed in mortar. 
The face of ashlar is finished in various ways: 

The Pitch face is formed, after jointing the stone, by a chisel applied to 
the sides, which spalls the stone off the face to the appearance of natural 
rock, showing no tool-marks. 

Picked face is the same finish, but picked with a point tool to show the 

0 

tool marks. 

Point-drove face is further .finished by a point tool driven across the face 
in parallel lines, horizontally or diagonally. 

These varieties of ashlar are usually finished at the corners and around 
openings with a chisel draft , to give a sharp, finished angle. 

Chisel face is the cutting of a smooth face, showing marks of chisel. 

Hammered face is the cutting of a face with a hush hammer. 

Rubbed work is done with a weighted. stone, sand, and water, with 
which the cut-stone is ground smooth. 

In more expensive work paneling, decorating, and vermiculating (which 
represents worm-eaten wood) is done in appropriate combinations. 

Other work which is not in common use is also well understood by the 
architect, and has appropriate uses which hardly need mention here; but 
all owners should notice particularly that stone-work is cut so as to lay on 
its natural bed—with the edge to the weather. It is very common to put 
the bed to the weather to show the marking of the grain, and to save the 
extra expense of cutting; but the frost of a few seasons causes it to flake 
off and destroys it, unless the stone be of extra close, hard grain. 

TERRA COTTA, 

Literally meaning “cooked clay,” would seem from its name to be very 
easy of manufacture, yet to produce a strong, durable material requires 
a scientific knowledge of clays, and their nature, and the addition of 
ground flint, etc., and the success of the vitrification more than ordinary 
experience, on account of the variable sizes of the blocks. A simple test 
of its texture is made with a penknife, which should not penetrate its 
surface, and will sometimes strike fire on it. It is stronger in tensile 
strength and under pressure than stone, if properly made, and stronger 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


21 


than ordinary brick. The true qualities of terra cotta in its application to 
architecture consist in its merit as a decorative fire-proof material, possess¬ 
ing the three essentials of color, durability, and economy; and when 
treated with due regard to construction, so as to fulfill its part in the build¬ 
ing, it admits of the impress of original art and fineness of execution, pleas¬ 
ing in effects in the hands of the architect. Tn combination with stone 
and brick fine effects are gained. 

To form it in single designs would be more costly than cutting in stone, 
and its cheapness depends upon the reproduction of the same design as 
many times as it can consistently be repeated in the same structure. But 
although it has these numerous good qualities it must be very judiciously 
used to prevent the appearance of gaudy cheapness. 

It should not be used in projecting courses, as it cannot be made in long 
pieces, and in short lengths the mortar freezes out of the joints, the 
corners are broken off under pressure of ice, and it soon shows a weather¬ 
beaten appearance. It is far better used in panels, dadoes, spandrils, and 
in flush ornamentation. It should not aim at imitating those features of 
stone architecture which require large blocks, for the nature of its treat¬ 
ment should be consistent with that to which it belongs—brick architec¬ 
ture. It is incapable of the high finish and detail which can be obtained 
in fine stone, and in its colors should not be made to affect the appearance 
of stone, for the sham is at once detected; but if it is used according to 
the uses of its class of material, honestly executed, without the aid of con¬ 
cealed supports and ties, it will excite respect and honor for the designer. 

We do not recommend its use where stone is cheap and to be had 
readily, as its contrast with stone ornamentation is depreciative; but where 
stone is scarce or Qostly, let it be used with simplicity in the most unos¬ 
tentatious and straightforward manner as an economical building material, 
and ornamentation, if added, be massed and composed so as to show a 
certain idea in its distribution among plain spaces, to give effect of contrast. 

BRICK-WORK. 

Only good, well-burned bricks should be allowed in any brick-work, 
though it is a common practice to use up the soft brick in the heart of 
thick walls. 

Good brick should have a rich color, and the different shades are 
assorted to different sfdes of a house. If good, they will ring with a clear 
metallic sound when struck together. Bricks that are soft enough to 
break off at the corners and edges with the fingers, and all swollen brick, 
must be refused. 


22 


HINTS ON BUILDTNO. 


Employ good bricklayers, as a poor job is always regretted. A wall 
should be laid up in courses and bonded every sixth course with a row of 
headers. Mortar should be used freely, and all spaces filled in solid, and 
any walls or piers sustaining great weight should also be grouted full of 
liquid cement, to ensure solidity. 

Form discharging-arches for all openings, and avoid building in timbers 
to nail wood-work to; if it is necessary, use lath or wood bricks. All 
projecting courses should be corbelled out in heading courses, and not pro¬ 
jected for cornices more than the thickness of the wall supporting it, or it 
is likely to overbalance and fall off. Leave channels for pipes. Brick 
walls are sometimes built hollow, but just as many brick must be used for 
strength as though they were solid. If so built the outside wall should 
be 8 inches thick and the inner wall 4 inches thick; and if to insure 
against dampness, use iron ties of 4 inch by f- inch. 104 inches long, turned 
up 1 inch at each end, and set 2 ft. 6 in. apart; this leaves a 24 -inch 
hollow space. Plastering may then be rendered on such a wall, but if 
plastering is to be put on do not use brick for bond, as they will conduct 
dampness through and the walls will have to be “firred off.” All solid 
walls should be firred off with strips set 16 inches from centers. 

Facings of brick should always be of pressed brick, when the limits of 
expenditure will admit of it, and laid in fine-tempered mortar, which is 
frequently colored with prepared oxides of iron. 

Molded brick give variety of ornament in string courses, cappings to 
arches, finish to jambs, angles, etc. Care should be taken to assort the 
different sizes or they will make jagged lines. 

COST OF BRICK-WORK. 

After computing the cost of brick delivered and covered and the 
amount of mortar (see article about mortar), the labor of bricklaying may 
be approximated as follows, allowing each man a helper to keep him sup¬ 
plied with material: 

In common house walls a man will average 1,500 bricks per day; in 
the neater faces of better work, 1,000 to 1,200 per day; in good ordinary 
street fronts, from 800 to 1,000; in the very finest work', from 150 to 300, 
according to the amount of angles. 

Washing down of brick-work with a solution of aqua fortis and water 
cleans the brick thoroughly, kills the lime-washing, and removes dis¬ 
colorations. 

Oiling brick-work is very beneficial, as it develops the color, and creates 
a film in the pores which helps to preserve a smooth surface. 


HINTS ON BUlLDtNGr. 


23 


Painting brick-work is often resorted to where the color of the brick is 
not good; it does not preserve it, but prevents absorption of water, 
making houses less subject to dampness. Where paint is to be applied the 
brick should be rubbed down with a piece of sandstone and cement water* 
that the pores may be filled up and little incrustations smoothed off. 

Fire-walls. All outside walls, and party-walls between houses, should 
be carried up above the roof at least one foot, and coped with blue-stone 
coping. They are a great protection against fire when an adjoining build¬ 
ing is in flames. 

Filling in with bricks. We do not advocate the filling in of frame 
houses with brick, for if the space, four inches, is filled up by laying the 
brick flat, as usual, making a solid wall, we find the house usually cold 
and damp in winter arid warm in summer. We advise inter-lathing and 
plastering, as it not only excludes the cold, but admits of enough ventila¬ 
tion to keep the walls dry. The filling in of frame houses with brick one 
foot high above the sills is an excellent preventative against rats and mice. 

STRENGTH OF BRICK-WORK 

Is a serious consideration, and these rules cover'^ the average emergencies 
of ordinary buildings; other special works must be subjected to the decis¬ 
ion of a constructing engineer. 

The resistance of a common brick is 120,000 lbs.; of pressed bricks, 
160,000. So a wall six hundred feet high would grind the foundations to 
powder. It is usual to calculate a safe load at one-tenth of this, as it is 
possible to carry up a twelve-inch wall sixty feet high in safety, as to 
weight, without other supports, if it were not subject to lateral pressures 
of wind, and danger of buckling, from want of stability; it is necessary 
to have walls thicker on this account, and each tier of beams built into 
them adds materially to the same result. 

In all dwelling-houses not more than twenty-five feet in height, the 
walls should be eight inches thick; not more than thirty-five feet, first 
story twelve inches; above that, eight inches; not more than fifty-feet in 
height, twelve inches; where they exceed this, and not over eighty feet, 
the two lower stories should be sixteen inches in thickness. 

Party-walls fifty-five feet in height should have the lower story sixteen 
inches thick, and the rest twelve inches; and where they exceed that height 
should be twenty inches thick first story, and sixteen inches the rest of the 
way up. Other buildings than dwelling-houses, or exceeding twenty-five 
feet in width, and without party-walls, should have all the walls at least 


ttINTS ON BUILDING. 


24 

four inches thicker; and buildings situated on a corner should have the ex¬ 
posed side also four inches thicker. 

Pilasters , at least two feet wide and not over fifteen feet centers, are ot 
great advantage, and add stability to walls equal to four inches greater 
thickness. 

Bracing new walls should never be neglected, for the mortar being 
green has no cohesive strength. 

The size of a brick is usually eight and one-fourth by four by two inches, 
which is sixty-six cubic inches. In ordering a large number be particu¬ 
lar as to size, as one-fourth inch each way less in size will contain only 
fifty-two cubic inches, thus requiring full twenty per cent, more brick to do 
the same amount of work, and be more costly in laying, as the same price is 
usually paid for 1,000. Smaller brick should always be bought for less 
money, and should not be taken when standard sizes can be had. The 
cause of difference in size is sometimes from short moulds, but oftener 
from the shrinkage of the clay in burning. 

The weight of brides will average four and a half pounds each, and two 
tons per 1,000, gross weight. A cubic foot of brick weighs one hundred 
and twenty-four pounds. 

The measuring of brick-work depends on the size of mortar-joints used 
in the work, they varying from eighteen to twenty-three per cubic foot. 
The average of twenty-one is used for measurements when not otherwise 
agreed to. The measurement usually overruns the kiln count of brick 
used, because of extra allowances for laying which a mason is entitled to 
by custom in rules of estimating. 

STABILITY OF BRICK-WORK. 

Stability must not be confounded with strength. A structure may be 
very strong and yet very unstable, or of weak material and have sta¬ 
bility. The stability has reference to the structure in its combinations of 
masses into one body, which gives rigidity against other forces than those 
which are crushing weights, and which forces are usually from the out¬ 
side, caused by wind, which may affect it either by steady pressure or 
cause vibration and rocking. Vibration internall}' is the severest test of 
construction. 

The height of a structure materially affect its stability, as the increased 
height increases leverage. 

The precautions to ensure stability are good foundations and the com¬ 
binations of construction which give strength against transverse strains; 
and resort must be had to strengthening joint fastenings with bolts, spikes, 
cramps, joggles, mortices and tenons, mortar, cement, etc. 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


25 


Partitions, floors, and roofs must all be combined with the outer wall to 
resist lateral pressure, and it is just as necessary to see these properly at¬ 
tached as it is to see the material properly laid. It is also for this reason 
that the foundation should be level in all its parts, stepped for structures 
on a sloping ground, and security against settling in mortar also provided 
for, where the walls are of different heights. 

MORTAR. 

Besides the few hints given heretofore about mortar, it is necessary to 
add these hints, as the proper strength of mortar is needed to give the ma¬ 
terials their proper value against strains and pressures; and as it is affected 
by extraneous circumstances, the best judgment must be used in the pro¬ 
portions, so as to overbalance the possibilities of injury. 

Lime mortar is readily affected by moisture in damp situations, ab¬ 
sorbing it from the ground, and also from the air, in situations not 
dried out by sunlight or air; and it is a common thing for it to remain soft 
without setting for several feet up from the ground; in such cases cement 
must be added. Moisture also affects cement, but with a tendency to 
harden it. 

Sand used in mortar must be sharp crystals, to give the best surfaces 
for cohesion of lime or cement, and must be free from clay, which pre¬ 
vents adhesion, and from salt, which draws dampness, causing the walls 
always to drip and be moist. 

The crushing resistance of mortar is two tons per square foot, as ordi¬ 
narily used; with less sand it is stronger. Mortar made too rich with 
lime will also be too slow in setting, the strength of mortar depending on 
the perfect mixing of the ingredients. 

Frozen mortar is ruined if once thawed out, and walls put up in freezing 
weather should be of mortar well mixed with cement, to cause the proper 
set before it can possibly thaw. Walls thawed out and improperly set 
must be taken down and rebuilt, as they are liable to fall down and cause 
much damage. 

Lime to be of use must be fresh, and protected from the weather 
until used. Lime well slaked requires time in order to properly dissolve 
the grain, and the longer the time it has the better. 

The proportion of one measure of lime to five measures of sharp sand 
is commonly used for light work, but where the walls are made thicker 
and require greater strength the proportions of lime are increased to one 
part to four and one part to three. 

Bricks as ordinarily laid in mortar will use sixteen bushels of sand, or 

3 


26 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


twenty cubic feet, and from one barrel to one and one-half barrels of lime : 
to each thousand of brick; the proportions of lime used depending upon 
its quality and the richness of the mortar required. Brick dust added to 
mortar renders it hydraulic. 

Cement mortar is mixed in proportions of one measure of cement to 
three of sand for light work, and one measure of cement to two of sand for 
heavy work. 

The addition of one-third part cement to two-thirds lime makes good 
mortar for brick-work put up in variable weather, or in exposed situations, 
and in proportion of half and half will be as rich as need be for most 
emergencies. It is also best for all stone-work under ground subject 
to much moisture or superincumbent weight. Sixteen bushels of sand, 
one barrel of lime, and one barrel of cement will make mortar sufficient 
for properly hearting one hundred and ten cubic feet of good rubble-stone 
wall. In dry weather bricks should be wet to prevent absorption of the 
moisture from the mortar; in cold weather it is not necessary, as the 
brick are not so absorbent, and the freezing of the water would injure them 
irreparably. 

PIERS, 

Where necessary to be used, should always be as large as possible, and 
if subjected to any weight should be bonded with stones the full size of 
pier and from three to five inches in thickness, according to size of pier. 
Piers should always be capped with stone; wood caps are invariably the 
source of serious trouble in the plastering afterwards. Give them good 
foundations, at least one foot larger each way. A safe rule of strength is 
never to let -their height exceed eight times their diameter. Build them 
always of hard brick and grouted in cement mortar. 

CONCRETE 

Is formed of broken stone, even in size, and large gravel, all well laid 
and rammed down solid, and a grouting of liquid cement poured into it 
and set in a solid mass. For cellar bottoms it varies from four to six 
inches in thickness and is afterwards floated smooth with a good coat of 
cement mortar. If used for foundations the width of trench is always at 
least twice the thickness of wall, and more, as circumstances require, and 
laid in courses not exceeding eight inches, and grouted in each course. 

Our experience has proved this to be invaluable in many cases, even 
where piling was unsatisfactory, having built it over beds of quicksand 
and marsh. 






HINTS ON BUILDING. 


27 


CHIMNEYS. 

There are a great many things connected with the position, formation, 
and finish of chimneys, usually neglected or done without proper judg¬ 
ment, and greater care must be exercised to prevent the numerous difficul¬ 
ties built in with them, and to prevent the frequent fires emanating 
therefrom. 

The chimney should always be placed with reference to doors and win¬ 
dows, where there is a draught, or an opportunity for creating one. A 
fire-place in the same wall with an entrance door should be avoided, as 
the halls will, on account of their greater height, draw off all the heat 
from the room. They should not be built on the outside walls, as the 
draft of the flues are checked by the outside temperature, and the windows 
too often become the means of escape of all the warmed air. 

Flues should be as straight as possible, and if there must be a bend let 
it be near the throat, the ingenuity of inventors being taxed to remedy 
thoughtless work in malformations. The height of the chimney should be 
sufficient to ensure a free play of the wind over it, without obstructions, 
and also of the influence of roof formations which create back draughts. 
Plastering of flues is of no use, as the action of soot soon destroys its hold 
and it drops off; a smooth-struck joint is better. Flues starting from the 
cellar should be furnished with soot boxes in bottom. 

All flues carried up through rooms without fire-places should have six 
inch sheet-iron thimbles and tin covers for stove-pipes. A great improve¬ 
ment in forming flues is to line them with glazed earthen-ware pipe, as 
an extra precaution against fire and to ensure a better draught. Flues 
for furnaces should be lined with fire-brick at least two feet in height at 
entrance of pipe. 

Fire-places should be well backed and throated, and also connected by 
an ash flue to a pit in the foundations in cellar. 

Hearths must be provided for, whether of stone or brick, with hearth 
arches underneath, corbelled out from chimneys. 

The topping out of chimneys should be done with projecting courses 
to lap over roof, and the capping courses set in cement mortar, the tops of 
projecting courses sloped off. Stone cappings are always an improvement 
in durability and finish. 

Fire-place fittings. Material, such as brick, mortar, and plaster of Paris, 
should always be specified to be provided for mantel and grate setters, in 
cases where the owners reserve the right of furnishing the mantels. 


28 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


AREAS' 

Are used to all entrance ways to basement, and around all windows 
which extend down into the ground. They are usually built with stone 
walls extending at least one foot below area bottom, and coped with cut 
or dressed-stone coping. The bottoms should always be lined, and a hole 
cut through the flag for the escape of water, and connected with the pipe 
drains, or a cesspool formed of broken stone under it, that the walls may 
not be affected, or dampness created in the cellar. Areas for windows 
can be formed cheaply by setting a four-inch wall with brick in a semi-cir¬ 
cular shape in front of it, and backing it up with waste stone and earth. 

DRAINAGE. 

All persons building should realize the importance of perfect drainage, 
and while a few persons can live in a poorly drained house despite all its 
ills, the majority are very sensitive to the effects of bad drainage. 

Sanitation requires equal care in other directions, which is considered 
under proper headings, but as the system of plumbing and modes of exit 
for water are by a common drain, it becomes us to see that it is the best 
system obtainable. 

Tap the sewers if accessible; if not, provide proper cesspools at a depth 
sure to secure ample fall of water. Suction created by a rapid exit of 
water removes possible obstructions and keeps pipes cleaner—the velocity 
of waste being greater in a pipe nearly full than in a larger one half full. 
Six-inch pipes usually accomplish all an ordinary house requires, and is 
the size commonly used, being preferable often to a larger one, as the 
water has an opportunity frequently to flush it, and gathering scum, 
which is a source of disease, is removed. 

Make all connections tight with cement, and when laying it be sure 
none are left broken or set astray, and that the pipe is bedded the whole 
way in mortar to prevent the weight of earth above breaking it. The 
most careful supervision of this work will relieve the owner of future 
anxieties. It is particularly noticeable how slight an obstruction will 
cause particles of waste to remain in the pipes to send back noxious smells, 
usually attributed to the sewer. 

Beside this drainage, in all soils showing springs, or possibility of water 
accumulating, there should be proper wall-drains laid, connected with a 
cesspool filled with broken stone, and connected thence to sewer, if con¬ 
venient. Several other ways will accomplish like results, which the archi¬ 
tect will suggest to suit circumstances. 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


29 


LATHING. 

All wooden partitions, ceilings, and brick walls, if firred off, are cov¬ 
ered with laths of pine or spruce, split or sawed. They are about one 
and one-half inches wide, one-fourth inch thick, and four feet long, and 
set not less than one-fourth of an inch apart. They must be put on in 
broken rows, called snatching. They come in bundles of one hundred 
each, and one thousand will cover sixty-five square feet of surface, or 
about seven yards, allowing for waste. 

PLASTERING. 

The plastering of the inside walls of a building, whether done on laths, 
bricks, or stone, generally consists of thin separate coats of mortar, the 
first a scratch , (or rough coat scratched with pointed laths to give a clinch 
to the next coat,) made up of one measure lime, four measures sand, and 
one-third measure of cattle or horse-hair; goats 1 hair is sometimes used, 
as it is longer. Care should be taken to cool the lime thoroughly before 
mixing in the hair, and hair if rotten is useless. The hair is used to pre¬ 
vent the mortar from coming off in patches when shrinking. When this 
coat is set, but not too dry, a second brown coat is applied; if too dry, it 
should be dampened a little. The brown coat is of the same rough mor¬ 
tar or coarse stuff, and before it becomes dry it is roughened a little with 
a hickory broom, to give the third coat a better hold. This third coat 
should be used ; the frequent occurrence of uneven walls, however, often 
shows it is not where it can be avoided. 

Two-coat work is resorted to by many to save expense in labor of one 
coat, and the first coat is made thicker. Even if care is taken, it does not 
gain so good a clinch on the lathing as three-coat work, for the first coat 
is put on for that express purpose, the second to gain thickness and 
true straight surfaces, and the finish is the white coat, as usual. Good 
effects are gained by finishing the brown or second coat with a fine- 
screened gravel, giving the pleasing effect of buff-stone blocks, when 
scored off to imitate the joints. 

In brick walls intended to be plastered, the mortar joints should be left 
rough for the plastering to adhere to, or if smooth, they must be raked 
out to give a clinch. Brick-work to be plastered should be washed down 
to free it from dust, and dampened, or the plastering will not stick. 

Always see that the plastering is carried down to the floor, and by this 
means avoid as far as possible any space back of the face-board for ver¬ 
min to gather. Also plaster behind panel-backs, under windows, and 
3 * 


30 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


where the sub-sill rests on the stone sill, to prevent the cold air and snow 
from drifting in. 

The third coat contains no hair, and for giving it a white appearance 
more lime is used—perhaps one part lime to two of sand, the purest white 
sand being used. This is called stucco, a name also applied to mortar used 
on the outside of buildings. 

Instead of stucco, the third coat may be of hard finish , or gauge stuff, 
which consists of one'measure of plaster of Paris to two of quicklime, with¬ 
out sand; but it is the practice of plasterers also to add some white sand, 
and it is called a bastard or half-finish , or a sand coat , just in proportion to 
the quantity of sand used, plaster of Paris being simply used to harden it. 
A stucco wall is best for painting in oil. 

Either of these coats is smoothed or polished to a greater or less ex¬ 
tent, according to the taste, whether it is to show, be papered, or painted, 
etc. The polishing is done with a hand trowel, or a float (which is a kind 
wooden trowel), and the water brush. The more the work is gone over 
with the trowel and brush, called floating, and the brush wet with water, 
the harder it will be, and the higher the polish. 

The rough surfaces and unevenness of walls must be set true by screed- 
ing in the second coat. Screeds are long gauge-strips of mortar set on 
walls, and set true to a long straight-edge called a screeder. 

The preparation of mortar for plastering is an important item, if good 
work is desired. The paste of lime should be slaked and cooled at least 
one or two months before using, and thoroughly sifted through a very fine 
seive, for if little pin-heads of lime unslaked get into the plastering they 
will eventually burst and cause little pops, and look pitted, as if with the 
small-pox. 

A plasterer, aided by two laborers to mix his mortar and keep his hawk 
full, can render about two hundred yards per day on straight walls, 
about one hundred and fifty yards if there are angles to turn, and one 
hundred yards on ceilings, of first coat, about two-thirds of this amount 
of second coat, and about one-half of third coat, or finish, the amount 
depending on the number of angles and the fineness of finish. If put on 
by the yard, stipulate to pay for surfaces covered, and thus avoid extras, 
even if you have to pay a few more cents per yard. 

The quantities of materials and labor for one hundred yards of plaster- 
ing, three-coat work, will approximate to five barrels quick-lime, one-half 
b.arrel plaster of Paris, two thousand lath, four bushels of hair, seven yards 
common sand, two and one-half bushels white sand, thirteen pounds of 
nails, four days’ labor for plasterer, and three days for laborer. Tioo- 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


31 


coat work makes a difference of one and one-half barrels of lime, 
one yard of common sand, one-half day less for plasterer, and one day 
legs for laborer; the difference in price is about five cents per square yard 
in ordinary work, and more if the three-coat work is of a higher finish. 

Plaster cornices are run in a muffled mold, with a mixture of plas¬ 
ter of Paris and lime putty. Plaster cornices will crack if poor plaster is 
mixed with good, as the common sets the most quickly. It is a common 
practice to mix glue with plaster when the quality is uncertain, as it 
causes the whole to set slower. 

IRON-WORK. 

Iron has furnished the building trades with great varieties of means for 
overcoming the emergencies incident to a strong structure, lightening the 
massive walls, and sustaining immense weights where little room could be 
afforded for bulky foundations. The knowledge of its powers in various 
forms and cross-sections is yet imperfect, and the rapid change in expan¬ 
sion and contraction in our variable climate presents difficulties that must 
be provided for where it is exposed. 

Its use should be guided by the best experience of the constructing 
engineer, and every piece made sure of for its purpose by a practical test 
under pressure of at least three times the possible weight, noting the de¬ 
flections and elasticity by the use of carefully adjusted instruments. 

Under compression cast-iron gives results over wrought-iron of two to 
one, while in tension wrought-iron reverses the rule. Combinations of the 
two are often used in proportion to cover these differences, or either is 
used and extra allowances made in quantity to cover possibilities of the 
existing strains. 

Variation in strength of various iron ore used is from ten to fifteen per 
cent. All possess elasticity, but each successive strain to its full bearing 
capacity separates the grain and weakens it. Cold weakens iron materially. 

Hollow shafts, either in compression or tension, are stronger than solid 
ones of the same area of metal. 

A square column has one-fifth greater bearing surface than a round one. 

The strength of a column to provide against possible contingencies is put 
at ten to one of its crushing strength. Columns with the ends planed off 
true and set with bed-plates will bear ten times as much as one simply 
squared or chiselled into place. A column out of plumb will onty bear 
one-third as much as one set true. 

Columns formed of segments of rolled iron answer for common work as 
well as cast-iron. Cast-iron columns are sixteen times stronger than 
wood of the same area. 


32 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


Girders are made of cast-iron or wrought-iron, with web and flanges to 
provide for transverse strains, and should always be tested before use. 
Rolled-iron beams with flanges top and bottom, and coupled together with 
bolts and separators, form excellent girders. 

Girders having the weight distributed over their entire length will bear 
twice as much as those with the weight at center; those concentrating 
their weight at third distances will bear only one-third more, and persons 
using them should be careful when ordering to make mention of the fact 
as to the position of piers. 

Over all girders used the brick-work should commence with a discharg¬ 
ing-arch, three courses of rowlocks, and of the full thickness of the wall. 
Girders have flanges top and bottom because it strengthens them in pro¬ 
portion to their depth. 

Beams of rolled-iron make most excellent systems of construction in 
combination for the support of floors, and in places where a wooden 
girder would appear as a blemish. 

Care must be taken, in examining iron goods, to search for defects often 
carefully cemented in with iron cement and painted over, also to note 
that the body of the metal is of the same thickness as the ends, as it is 
frequently thinner than it shows. A pair of calipers will determine the 
probabilities. 

To provide against fire all columns should be doubled, and the inner 
column made sufficient for the weight, so that if the outer shell is destroyed 
the building ma) r yet be saved. A coating of plaster of Paris and wood 
ashes make an excellent protection against fire for all iron-work. 

Iron anchors , for securing beams into brick-work of houses, should be 
three-eighths by one and one-half inch iron, with six inches turned up 
into walls, and one inch turned down into the beam one foot from the wall, 
and nailed with two wrought nails one-fourPh inch thick, one anchor to be 
used to every fourth beam, and to all trimmers resting on the walls. Where 
these beams overlap girders or a brick wall, use strap-irons, with an inch 
turned down into the beam at each end. 

Bridle-irons and stirrups should be used for timbers framed together, 
that the weight may not be entirely on the tenons. 

Angle-irons should be used in all exposed corners of brick aud stone 
houses, built into the walls, and extending well back into the masonry. 

Tie-rods should be used freely where small piers are put up, to prevent 
lateral settling. 

Anchor-bolts should be used to secure the roof-plates to brick walls on 
all buildings having pitch roofs. 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


33 


Miscellaneous articles in iron-mongery are also to be provided, the names 
of which will suggest their uses. 

JOINER-WORK. 

Good joiner-work is a source of pleasure to all owners, and no part of 
the work of building tries the skill of builders more than this; and the in¬ 
creasing expense of the softer varieties of wood is adding material embar¬ 
rassments to their labors. 

The selection of the material and the cutting of it up to secure the best 
appearances of the stock requires thought and experience, and its qualities 
as to strength the most careful consideration of the engineer. Seasoned 
lumber is twice as strong as green lumber and is difficult to obtain; 
all lumber used for finish that is exposed to view should be kiln-dried be¬ 
fore using. 

The labor of joiner-work is now divided up into several branches, and 
it is a curiosity to see a shop where all branches of joinery connected 
with building is done. Machinery has wonderfully improved the resources, 
so that now the builder carefully lists the quantities of the manufactured 
goods and rough lumber separately, and sub-contracts them to appropriate 
tradesmen. 

The introduction of new sj^stems of finish and workmanship has greatly 
improved the beauty of the work, and done away with numerous combi¬ 
nations of surface moldings, and the consequent gaping of opening mitres, 
and the art of construction in finish now obtains artistic results at very 
low cost which ten years ago was not attainable without great outlay, and 
the few men who refused to bend their work to suit the caprice of ginger¬ 
bread fashions, have succeeded in bending fashion to their will in work¬ 
manship, to universal benefit. 

ECONOMY IN THE USE OF LUMBER. 

It is a matter of intense interest to all, and the President’s messages 
call serious attention to the rapid waste of our forests which is making the 
price of lumber higher. Economy in use of materials has called for the 
best energies of constructing engineers to devise methods of construction 
which will accomplish that result; and though it is hard to get men with 
fixed notions of building to adopt them, the principles are rapidly gaining 
ground, and some are reaping their reward by using them, in making more 
money out of their work and putting up buildings at lower prices. The 
structures are just as strong, if not stronger, and in this age of advance¬ 
ment of science and arts, a man who ridicules theories tampers with his 


34 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


/ 


bread and butter, while he should be up and doing all he can to prove 
those theories practical, and to his pecuniary gain. Expensive machinery 
now tests every form of material and construction, so that a few minutes’ 
work gives the results it would otherwise take years to determine. 

A practical worker on principles has the pleasure of knowing before¬ 
hand what his work will do, while a bungler is constantly making amends 
for errors—to his loss; sometimes he is right by chance, but because a 
house stands it is no guarantee of its durability, for the numerous accounts 
of so-called accidents show, that when tested they failed of their purpose. 
It is the judicious combination of theory and practice which makes the 
best results, and no man secceeds who follows either to the exclusion of 
the other. 

Wastage in working lumber nearly averages one-fourth the whole 
bulk, and in ordering, that much allowance should be made. 

STRENGTH OF TIMBER. 

Timber used in construction is subject to crushing, tensile, and trans¬ 
verse strains, often in the same piece; therefore its shape as well as size 
has a marked influence in regulating its adaptabilhy, and the manner of 
use its durability. The strength of timber varies materially with the age 
of the tree, the locality of growth, whether the piece is from the center or 
outer portion of the tree, the straightness of grain, knots, number of rings, 
etc. From the time it is tapped as a green tree until erected in place it 
is subject to influences which either add to or detract from its value, even 
to its position; and should a stick in use happen to be placed with the 
natural top of the tree downward, it will show it by rotting at the end 
placed downward sooner than if placed in position as grown in nature, 
the laws of structure increasing evaporation and keeping dry a stick 
which is properly placed, but obstructing evaporation when reversed. 

When subjected to crushing strains a piece on end will bear ten times 
as much as it will if placed on its side, so that all lumber used for block¬ 
ing up weights should be cut and set on end. 

Comparative value of other timber with pine is as follows: White oak, 
1.45; hemlock, 0.90; white cedar, 0.60; spruce, 0.85. Shrinkage is one- 
sixteenth as great endwise as crosswise. Timber used as pillars or posts 
may be approximated as follows: 800 pounds per square inch is the safe 
load of timber not over 8 diameters in length ; 10 diameters, 620; 12 
diameters, 525; 14 diameters, 460; 16 diameters will hold only 400 
pounds. At 30 diameters a piece of timber will hold 50 pounds per 
square inch. Any load upon it above this, unless supported by braces, will 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


35 


cause it to bend at the center, and the distance apart of braces will deter¬ 
mine its value. Morticing reduces the strength in crushing strains exactly 
in proportion to the amount of timber left, but does not materially affect it 
for transverse strains. 

When framing a tier of beams, provision must be made for trimmers ,— 
extra-size pieces to support the tail beams, stopping at the stair-wells and 
chimneys. These trimmers should be of sufficient strength to carry the 
whole weight of the floors between them, and calculated for the same as 
girders, and be twice or three times as heavy as the floor-beams. Mor¬ 
ticing these for the headers is not a good practice, stirrups should be 
made of iron, and the headers hung into them. Beams directly under par¬ 
titions, and running parallel with them, should be doubled. No beams 
should be placed nearer than eight inches to any flue. It is false economy 
to use light floor-beams, as their constant vibration when walked upon is 
excessively annoying and unpleasant. All floor-beams should be thor¬ 
oughly cross-bridged at least once in a twelve-foot span, and twice in any 
span from fifteen feet upward. 

The cutting into beams for gas or water-pipes should never be more 
than two feet away from the ends, and in depth not more than absolutely 
necessary for the size of the pipe. The reckless cutting by pipe-fitters 
seriously injures many a good building, and should it be thoughtlessly 
done, boards should be well nailed on the sides of the beams cut to pre¬ 
serve the strength. 

Beams should never rest upon inside partitions, but be carried through 
the whole width of the building to the outer frame or brick wall, or, in wide 
buildings, to girders, provided specially for them to rest upon. 

Tensile strength of wood varies from one thousand to two thousand 
pounds per square inch, and is one-half as strong as cast-iron. Cohesion 
does not change in regard to length, therefore a piece may be used of 
any length which has a true grain; pieces spliced together lose strength. 

Best results are obtained from small sizes, whereas large timbers are 
invariably affected by all the weakening conditions. The most durable 
structure is obtained from combinations of construction, and where certain 
strength must be obtained those principles must be put in force to ensure 
the work being satisfactory. Timber will vary one-third in strength, and 
even with a safe load a beam may bend too much, therefore the deflection 
of beams at center is of first consideration as to strength. 

From these deductions it will be seen that it is better to use smaller 
beams for floors and closer centers, and girders of constructed pieces. 

A beam cut nearly square in its section is subject to the greatest deflec- 


86 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


tion, used as a door joist or girder, and its stiffness and strength is 
increased in proportion as the depth is increased over its thickness, 
when braced against twisting by bridging, or provided against transverse 
strains. In proportion as a beam is twice, three, or four times the 
depth of another beam of the same thickness, so will the strength be 
four, nine, or sixteen times as great. 

An excellent rule of approximation in our practice will be found of 
value in approximating the strength of any piece of timber with the 
weight at center : 

Multiply the breadth by the square of the depth, and divide the pro¬ 
duct by the length in feet, and multiply the quotient by seventy-five. 

Breadth X the square of its dep th and the otieIlt x 1B=the strength, 
its length in ieet 

If the weight is evenly distributed it will hold twice as much. To 
determine the load a tier of beams is subject to, multiply the length by the 
distance between centers in feet and parts of a foot; if they are for a 
dwelling-house multiply that amount by 75; if for a public hall, by 120; 
if for a store, by 200; if for a shop or warehouse, by the actual weight 
of goods, etc., liable to rest upon it; and if for machinery, allowances 
are to be made for position, vibration, etc. 

To determine the weight upon the girder or header, multiply the length 
of girder or header by the length of beams in feet, and this product by 
the weights, as above mentioned, according to the use of the building. 

The distance between centers is determined by the size of the beams 
used in proportion to the calculated weight. Girders strengthened on the 
upper and under sides increase their strength in proportion to the depth 
of the beam. This is the reason iron girders have flanges top and 
bottom. 

TRUSSES. 

When the space to be spanned by timbers is so great that single beams 
deflect too much under given loads, resort is had to compound beams, 
called trusses. Engineering has achieved great success in determining 
relative values of the many combinations made to meet different emer¬ 
gencies. The old conventional forms with their imperfections have been 
rapidly replaced by new ones which have the merit of doing the work 
assigned them so that there is little excuse for roofs caving in. And 
while we mention a few facts connected with them, the limited character 
of this work will not permit any elucidation of the principles, but we 
respectfully caution all persons not to adopt any form of trussing without 



HINTS ON BUILDING. 


37 


consultation with known experts. Many roofs and buildings are full of 
extra rods put in to counteract defects that might easily have been 
avoided. 

Horizontal pieces are called chords or ties; oblique principals, rafters; 
vertical pieces, posts; and besides these are suspension-rods , braces , struts , 
counters , siraining-beams, , etc.; and these are used in single and com¬ 
pound combinations. 

In framing a truss, whatever the principal bears up is the amount of 
the strain on the lower chord. Counter-rafters, or struts, only aid in 
strength when the downward strain is counteracted by rods or bolts. All 
timbers used should be constructed with every piece perfectly in bearing, 
so that crushing weights would affect all pieces at the same time. All 
joints must be planed true, and set firmly, and bolted against counteract¬ 
ing strains, because strains by wind often reverse the purpose of timbers 
on the opposite side from the exerted pressure. 

Rafters assume the work of pillars, and have also a vertical strain trans¬ 
verse to themselves, which makes it a necessity that they should be of 
greater depth than thickness. Tie beams also have transverse strains, 
yet the final calculations show them to b§ nearly square, and it is a mistake 
to treat them in the same manner as floor-beams, in calculation of strength 
and bearing. 

Deflection of trusses is not always an evidence of weakness, but elasticity 
# of the timber may be greater than use may warrant. 

Trusses should always be braced laterally against transverse pressures; 
it is common to neglect them, and leaky roofs and crocked walls are a 
natural consequence. 

It is the practice of some to diminish the size of rafters from the foot 
to the head, but the saving in weight effected would be better if left on, 
and the expense of re-sawing uses up all the saving in cost of lumber. 

The pitch of a roof truss is determined by the style of building and the 
materials for roofing. The greater pitch of roof, though it gives greater 
area of roofing materials, makes a saving in timber and construction,— 
often a consideration. 

A truss well constructed will bear the same weights when inverted, ex¬ 
cept that the purpose of every piece will be reversed. 

FRAME BUILDINGS. 

The construction of a frame house is supposed to be from some fixed 
principles, but the varied notions of joiners would make it difficult to 
decide technically to what tribe the species belonged. So long as there is 
4 


38 


HINTS ON BUILD TNG. 


timber enough., well braced and joined together properly, the ready adapta¬ 
bility of wood to any desired fancy of form and design usually makes it 
safe in construction; and without attempting to define systems of con¬ 
struction, our purpose is only to give hints which will aid, in any form of 
construction, to attain the results. 

All framing should fit'snug. and when raising, the too handy use of a - 
chisel should be avoided. 

A snug tenon, well pinned, is of important value. It is our practice to 
set all joist, studding, and rafters at a unform distance of sixteen inches, 
so that beams and studding lay side by side, and then spike them firmly to 
each other. Notching out, or mortices, should never be more than one- 
third the depth of the timber. 

Bracing should be very thorough and notched into principal timbers. 
Studding should be doubled around all door and window openings. 

A good practical architect will exercise his best ability to gain the maxi¬ 
mum strength with the minimum amount of timber, using smaller timber 
more frequently placed, as shrinkage is sure to occur from seasoning, and 
plastering expensively decorated thereby grievously injured. 

COVERINGS FOR FRAME HOUSES. 

The mode of covering most in use is narrow strips, called clapboards, 
made in a variety of patterns, plain, beveled, rebated, and put on horizon¬ 
tally. Always use rebated boards of whatever style to overlap an inch, 
as they fit to the frame more snugly. Another method is to use tongued 
and grooved pine flooring with the outer shoulder bevelled, or rebated to 
form a channel joint. The narrower the boarding or clapboarding, the 
less shrinkage. Vertical boarding is sometimes used and the joints bat¬ 
tened. 

Clapboards above described are from one-half to seven-eighths of an 
inch in thickness; the thicker kinds may be used on cheap houses without 
under-sheathing, but the thin ones do not keep out the cold winds without 
it. Special care must be taken to get them perfectly well seasoned, as 
serious defects are sure to occur. 

Under-sheathing may be of any cheap, sound boards, planed to an even 
thickness and well nailed to studding. Tonguing and grooving is an im¬ 
provement, but adds to the cost. Over this sheathing is usually put a 
sized paper felting which effectually excludes all cold air, and thus makes 
a saving in fuel. 

When putting on clapboards it is usual to butt them, making neat, 
tight joints against all corner boards and casings; but a better plan is to 
under-rebate the casings, etc., an inch to receive them. 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


39 


PARTITIONS. 

All partitions should be commenced directly from the brick foundation- 
walls or girders, and not from the top of the joist. On each story a plate 
should be placed, and the partitions of the next upper story built directly 
upon this plate. 

If not directly over each other then they must of necessity start from 
the top of the beams, but if the beams are placed sixteen inches from cen¬ 
ters, the studding should rest directly over them. It is poor economy to 
try to save a strip of studding by building directly upon the flooring, as 
often carelessly done. Partitions with none directly under them should 
be braced, to form a truss, over the span; and all principal partitions with 
others resting upon them should be cross-bridged thoroughly. Partitions 
should be made as a part of the whole construction of the building, and 
conduce to its strength, and not be a simple dead weight upon the floors. 
Their construction should also add stability to the whole edifice. 

ROOFS. 

This part of the building is put up to suit the forms of the plan, and 
with such additional features as the designs suggest which will add to the 
appearance of the building. Much more attention than is usual should be 
given to it. and it is poor policy to economize in its construction. 

It is always best to anchor the plates to the walls, if a brick house, and 
'use a few strap-irons if a wooden one; also bridle-irons at angles of plates 
and hips. 

Valley rafters should always be increased in strength, and if the upper 
roof is decked, good stout posts or braces should be used, forming a line 
of support from the nearest partition-walls. 

Often chimneys are so located as to assist materially in supporting a 
roof; a few courses corbelled out to receive braces would be of great ad¬ 
vantage; still, it must be the rule of construction not to rely upon them 
for any support, as they are liable to be removed, or settle away from the 
timbers. 

After the framing is all done the sheathing is to be put on and well 
nailed. We prefer tongued and grooved sheathing, planed to an even 
thickness, and a layer of felting over it, as it excludes wind and snow if 
the covering be slate, and deadens the sound if the covering be of tin. 

Back plastering, with a rough coat of mortar, adds largely to comfort 
and warmth in a house. 


40 


HTNTS ON BUILDING. 


ROOF COVERINGS. 

Slate should be preferred to shingles on a pitch roof, as it is more dur¬ 
able, fire-proof, and has a neater appearance. The value of the house is 
also increased more in proportion than the difference in cost, and your 
insurance premiums are less. 

Provide for and put on proper tin flashings around all chimneys, dor¬ 
mers, scuttles, sky-lights, on all hips, and in all valleys, run well up under 
the slate, and nailed. All flashings should be of XX tin, and painted both 
sides before using, and all exposed joints and nail heads soldered. Besides 
flashing, the two first courses of slate up from gutters and in from valleys 
and hips, and around all chimneys, etc., should be well cemented. Some¬ 
times a layer of mortar is spread over the whole roof, which is advisable 
and adds to durability. All slate should be laid with two inches over-lag) 
on small slates, and three on large; that is, the surface laid to weather should 
be half the length, less the lap, which allows the next course to break 
joint over it, and to extend three inches above the joint, as a provision 
against the drift of snow, etc. This makes the slate lay double and the 
laps triple. 

All joints must be made over the center line of width, and each slate 
nailed with two galvanized nails, wrought nails to be preferred. 

Slate comes of different sizes, and should be straight, of good even 
color, not too thin, and about sixty to the foot in thickness. The sizes 
best for use are 7x14, making 374 in square of 100 feet; 9x16, 246 
in square of 100 feet; 11 x 20, 154 in square of 100 feet; average weight, 
three pounds per square foot. 

The pitch of a slate roof should not be less than one foot rise to two 
feet in run. 

The best slate shows a metallic glistening surface, and rings well. The 
dead color is indicative of softer material, and it fades sooner, splits more 
with frost, and becomes weatherworn. 

SHINGLES. 

Shingle roofs are flashed in same manner as for slate, and the rule for 
laying is one-third of length to weather and two inches overlap. Shingles 
should be sized as nearly as possible, so as to break joints at least two 
inches over the one under; and shingles less than four inches wide, used 
over the center of very broad ones. 

The sizes are generally from eighteen to twenty-seven inches long, four 
to seven inches wide, and one-fourth of an inch thick at the thin end, and 
five-eighths of an inch at the butt. 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


41 


White cedar shingles are the best to use and the most durable. . Cypress 
about half as good, and pine still less. Split shingles out-wear sawn 
shingles two to one. 

Eighteen-inch shingles lay 130 square feet to the 1,000, larger shingles 
laying more in proportion. Shingles wear from six to twelve years. 
Two good coats of linseed oil will preserve them a long while, and paint¬ 
ing them helps, the same as any other wood-work. Shingles are usually 
laid on lath two and one-half inches wide and one inch thick, set eight 
and one-half inches apart. 

TINNING. 

Tin rooting, to be good, must be put on with care, well turned up and 
over all angles, and flashed around all openings. As it is subject to 
expansion and contraction, leaks are always the result if proper allow¬ 
ances are not made. This is provided against by a raised standing joint, 
which costs a little more but pays better by lasting longer; a flat joint is 
cheaper but not durable. 

Tin should always be painted on the under side of the sheets before 
using, as the sweating from condensation of vapor causes it to rust readily. 

Tin roofs should be painted thoroughly every two years, and in angles 
every fall. 

Tin sheets are 10x14 inches in size and of different thicknesses, 
sized by X, XX, and XXX. XX is best for general use, as the metal is 
thin, pliable, and less liable to crack under strain of contraction than 
thicker metal; anything thinner rusts through too easily. It is known 
amongst makers and dealers by different brands which designate the quantity 
of tin actually used. Tin is bright, and of a silvery color; adheres in 
large smooth flakes. Compositions of lead and tin, or zinc, are a dead 
smoky color, and last but a short time under the corrosive influences of 
salt air, smoke, and acids, these being the principal causes of its decay. 

While speaking of tin, let us remind owners to see to all flashings, as 
before mentioned, and to window-cappings of frame houses, connections 
of piazzas, bays, porches, etc., that tin is freely used to prevent future 
difficulties, and leaks which are a mystery to many people. 

COMPOSITION ROOFS, 

If properly made, are just as costly as tin. They are made with two <>i 
more ply of paper with asphaltum between, and also well spread over 
with tar, pulverized slate, sand, or gravel, to give them a haid suiface. 
Such good results are sometimes attained that it encourages their use, but 
4* 


42 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


caution must be used by all to investigate the work ot those putting them 
on. to get a good job. The principal advantage is in the saving of painting 
and easy way of repair; but as the heat of summer affects them, they must 
be overhauled every fall and any suspicious cracks filled up Though they 
may not leak then, they may be already rotting out the paper so that a leak 
is sure to occur. 

All kinds of roof coverings need far more attention by owners than 
they are willing to give, and it is not surprising that they soon cause 
trouble when not attended to. They are subjected to all changes of 
weather, strains of wind, internal influences, the atmosphere and the ele¬ 
ments of smoke, besides the numerous acids thrown out by factories which 
fall on them in showers. If you want a comfortable time in the interior 
look out for your roofs. 

FLOORS. 

All floors are much improved by being laid double; that is, with a 
rough flooring of common boards planed to an even thickness and used 
until all plastering, etc., is finished, then over this lay a flooring of tongued 
and grooved boards of the wood determined upon, either pine, spruce, or 
hard woods. All floorings should be well kiln-dried before laying. They 
vary from two to six inches in width, and the narrower widths shrink less. 
Each board should be well cramped into place, and no two heading joints 
to come together, and be well secret-nailed to each beam. 

If the floors are of hard woods, give them a coat of good patent filler, 
and two coats of heavy coach varnish; this may be pumiced down to any 
fineness of finish, and will bear waxing, and not dry out when the sun¬ 
light happens to touch it. If they are to be painted, all cracks should be 
filled in with putty. A good mineral paint will wear the best. 

DEAFENING OF FLOORS. 

A layer of paper felting between the flooring adds to the warmth of a 
building, and also deafens the floors. It is also the practice to put in 
rough boards between joist and rough-gauge mortar in the spaces as a deafen¬ 
ing. Deafening should be done when it can be afforded, as it prevents 
the ceilings underneath being stained, prevents rapid spread of fire, 
deadens all sounds, and adds to comfort of home. 

STAIRS. 

Stairs to be properly constructed should have their rise and tread in 
proportion to the natural walking step, otherwise they will be tiresome 
and annoying to the person using them. The average measure of step 
agreed upon is twenty-five and one-half inches. 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


43 


The width of tread is determined upon according to the space left for 
stairs, and varies from nine to twelve inches, the width for a dwelling being- 
ten and one-half inches, and greater widths for public structures. This 
amount is deducted from the length of step, and half the difference gives 
the rise of the step; thus, ten and one-half from twenty-five and one-half 
equals fifteen, one half of fifteen is seven and one-half, the rise of step. 
Stairs should have ample room for run and not be cramped for head- 
room, it being very unpleasant to feel forced to duck the head under the 
upper floor. 

Stairs which are constructed with landings for rest are preferable to 
long continuous runs, and all differences in height of story in different 
parts should be provided for between these landings, and not in passage¬ 
ways, as is often done. 

In constructing stairs they are put upon timber carriages, the side pieces, 
called strings, are of good sound lumber, and cut out to receive the treads 
and risers, (called housing,) and these are cut flaring to admit of wedges 
being inserted and glued in. Each step should also be blocked in the 
angle on the under side with pieces of wood glued in to make it solid 
and prevent creaking. The finish is executed to suit the character of the 
rest of the interior. 

Newel-posts are more or less elaborate, and are best made of pieces glued 
up and solidly joined and dowelled together. Rails and balusters are 
molded, and their finish is subject to the will of the designer. 

While referring to main stairs it is necessary to describe rear stair¬ 
ways, which are sometimes open, or housed in between walls. They 
should always be provided with rails to prevent accidents. Sometimes 
room is scant to make regularly proportioned steps, but it is best always to 
plan for good, roomy stairs, as they save broken limbs and painful acci¬ 
dents. 

Attic stairs are usually enclosed and a doorway placed at the bottom, so 
that the heat of the rooms may not escape to the roof. 

Avoid winders, except when absolutely necessary to economize space, 
as they are always dangerous. 

Provide step-ladders to scuttles and plank stairs to cellars. 

STOOPS 

Should be broad and roomy, and wherever possible sheltered by project¬ 
ing roofs, and provided with side rails. There is no economy in a poorly 
constructed stoop, which is the approach to the house, and if well propor¬ 
tioned gives the first impression to a visitor of either pleasure or contempt. 


44 


HINTS OF BUILDING. 


They should also have good foundations to prevent their being raised out 
of place bv frost. 

DOORS. 

It is a common practice to set the jambs for doors for the plasterer to finish 
to. This is an injury to the jamb in many ways. It is subjected to wetting by 
the mortar and gets sprung all out of shape by it, and also by the settle¬ 
ment of the building to its place by the accumulating weights. It is the 
proper thing to put up rough grounds for the plasterers to work to. Jambs 
should then be perfectly squared and set plumb. Doors should be of the 
best material and qualities; a poor door is a bad investment at any price. 
They should be well fitted and hung on loose-joint butts, so that they can 
be readily taken off, to ease the fitting when necessity requires ; and when 
it becomes necessary it is always well for an owner to look and remedy 
the causer before cutting a door. It is also convenient to remove them 
when opening the whole house for company. 

Doors vary in thickness and proportion to the height of stories, also 
with the use; the height is usually two-thirds the height of the room 
and the width two-fifths of the height. All doors opening into large 
rooms and between rooms should be double-faced; the rest may be single¬ 
faced—that is, finished or molded on one or both sides. Doors should all 
have molded saddles of hard wood under them, and turned door-stops 
with rubber heads to protect the walls. When carpets are run through 
door-ways saddles may be left out.. 

The placing of doors should be well considered. Those opening into 
adjoining rooms should be as nearly opposite as possible. 

Doors opening into a room should be hung so that the light will fall 
directly upon the person entering, that he may be distinguished quickly. 
They should also open against the fire-places, so as to prevent a suction 
of heat from the fire-places up the hallways. 

Doors opening into chambers should be placed so as to conceal the bed 
from view of persons in the halls, securing all the privacy possible. 

Doors which are liable to clash should be hung with their backs near 
together, then they are not so liable to strike. 

WINDOWS. 

Windows should have strong frames, made in the best manner, with 
casings and boxes for weights if for a frame house; hanging stiles and 
back linings if for a brick house. 

Pulley stiles are best made of southern pine, fitted with pullevs Of suffi¬ 
cient sizes. 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


45 


Sash should be of good thickness, made and fitted to prevent rattling, 
and balanced with true weights, hung on hemp or Silver Lake cord. Tf 
they run hard a little tallow or soap put in the race-way usually cures the 
trouble. Sash are hung in other ways without weights, but the incon¬ 
venience overbalances the little difference in cost. 

Windows slightly recessed, and clustered in groups, add an inviting charm 
to rooms, and suggest enjoyable nooks which make homes more attractive. 

Casement sash are used in large extended windows or for opening on 
balconies, and special appliances for rendering them tight against rain and 
snow-drift must be used with them. 

Transom windows give added grace and afford means of ventilation. 
They can be elegantly filled with stained glass in ornamental designs. 

The general proportion of windows vary in height from twice to three 
times their width, and other windows of all proportions, from the dungeon 
light to the lanterne, used with discrimination, give air and light in dark¬ 
ened recesses, and are left plain or decorated as the taste in the style 
adopted seems to warrant. 

GLASS. 

Glass is divided into three general grades of thickness, single thick 
sheet, double thick, and plate. All to be good should be free from stains, 
flaws and burns, which are easily discovered by use of a black cloth. All 
winding or imperfect glass should be rejected, as it is a blemish to any 
house. 

Stained or decorated glass has of late been so materially cheapened as to 
be afforded by almost every one. Special tints are fashionable and the 
most expensive; finely toned tints, subdued in color, give the most pleas¬ 
ing effects. Bright flashing colors should be avoided, as injurious and 
affecting many persons unpleasantly. 

Hammered glass softens effects of the colors. 

^Unlimited expense can be added if desired, but that should be no 
hindrance to persons of limited means gratifying their taste if they desire 
to, for with a moderate outlay they can obtain very pleasing results. 

PLUMBING. 

We have now reached a subject of vital importance, which affects the 
health, comfort, and pocket of the owner either for better or for worse. The 
plan of the house should be arranged so as to give the best accommoda¬ 
tions for all arrangements from the kitchen to the bath-room, and also to 
secure the arrangement of piping in the interior walls. There are numer¬ 
ous considerations which must affect the arrangement of plumbing, both 




46 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


for effective service and in sanitation, which are imperative, and unless 
carefully looked after and conscientiously performed, health in mind and 
body is seriously affected. 

Owners are usuall}’’ struck with a peculiar streak of economy when 
plumbing is to be done, which is so decidedly against their best interests 
that we must caution them that no investment in a house pays better 
interest on the money expended than wise and judicious plumbing. 

All materials used in plumbing are expensive, but not more so than 
other goods, when the labor of manufacture is considered. The quality 
of materials must always be the best, the manufactures from relia¬ 
ble firms, and the plumber engaged an experienced and competent work¬ 
man, worthy of high wages if he will do his work properly. 

Plumbing to be properly put in must commence with supplies of suffi¬ 
cient capacity to ensure service. Hot and cold water pipes not put side 
by side, as is sometimes done to prevent freezing, but the cold water pipes 
properly covered and protected from freezing, and arrangements for empty¬ 
ing them when freezing is feared. The}' should not be bricked or plas¬ 
tered tight in walls', but boxed in, with covers that can be easily removed. 
Hot water pipes should be provided with circulators, so that delays and 
waste are not caused by waiting for hot water to arrive. 

Soil and waste-pipes must be carefully trapped with approved traps, 
and connected by ventilating pipes up through the building, and out of 
the roof. Provision must be made to prevent syphonage of traps, and all 
wastes caulked tight, and properly connected with sewer. Arrangements 
must also be made to prevent choking by grease, washings of ashes, etc., 
which many persons persist in sending through wastes, and as they cannot 
be individually prevented, special safeguards must be provided. 

Numerous and minute details would be necessary to complete these 
hints if we were to attempt to explain plumbing in its parts, and the 
special arrangements for proper observance of the laws of sanitation, but 
we can only say, be cautious to get the best possible treatment of your 
plumbing b}^ professional men, and if you succeed in getting a perfect 
job let the amount of the bill be considered but a cheap price for work 
well and faithfully performed. 

PAINTING. 

The principal material used in house-painting is either white lead or 
oxide of zinc, ground in raw (unboiled) linseed oil, in proportion of three 
or four pints to each ten pounds. 

Good painting in lead requires four or five coats, but usually three is 
given, leaving the additional coats to a future period. Each coat must be 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


47 


allowed to dry perfectly before applying the next, and put on quite thin 
it durable work is desired. One pound of keg paint will cover about two 
square yards the first coat, three square yards the second coat, and four 
for the third and other coats. 

hen, as is usual, raw oils are used for thinning, dryers of sugar of 
lead, sulphate of zinc, or litharge are used, about a heaping teaspoonful 
to ten pounds of paint. Japan varnish is sometimes added, but is not 
good, as it causes the paint to crack all over, or craze. No dryer is neces¬ 
sary if painters’ boiled oil is used for thinning—not that boiled oil dries 
quicker, but painters’ oil comes already prepared with litharge. 

Raw oil is clearer in color, lighter, and makes a good surface to paint 
on. Boiled oils are preferred for interior work. 

Turpentine is used also for thinning paint, and makes it flow very 
freely, but as it destroys the gloss of oil it is called flatting. Little or no 
turpentine should be used in work to be exposed to the weather, and on 
inside work only when a dead finish is wanted, or haste in finish is 
required. While turpentine is not a dryer, it evaporates quickly, and 
facilitates hardening. 

White lead paint is adulterated extensively with whiting, and if 
adulterated it should not be used, if good work is required. White 
lead, while it is the most used, is also the most perishable paint we have 
in use, and discolors easily. Mineral paints, with chemical combinations, 
are in common use under various names, and are cheaper, very servicea¬ 
ble, and stand weather very well, but should be well tested before use. 

Colors are mineral , vegetable , or" metallic; that is,- are oxides of metals, 
etc., more or less durable, and are ground in oil for house-painting, 
ready for mixing. 

All surfaces to be painted should be well smoothed with fine sand¬ 
paper, all dust removed, and perfectly dry. Nail-heads should be punched 
one-eighth of an inch below surface, and puttied up on the second coat; 
not on the first, as the wood absorbs the oil, and the putty will not stick. 
Knots should be covered with a couple of coats of shellac, dissolved in alco¬ 
hol, and then smoothed off with sand-paper. No turpentine should be 
used in the first coat, as the wood absorbs it quickly and leaves the paint 
on the surface without cohesion. 

The best paints for preserving iron are made of pulverized oxides of 
iron. Painting unseasoned wood hastens its decay. 

FILLING AND VARNISHING. 

When it is desirable to retain the surface and effects of natural woods, 
they are smoothed perfectly and a coat ol filling applied, which fills up 


48 


HTNTS ON BUILDING. 


the pores of the wood, enhances the beauty of the natural marking 1 of 
grain, and presents a very smooth finish for varnish. Filling, if colored a 
little, heightens the effect, and gives an appearance of age—often desired. 
It is sometimes colored to produce imitations of darker woods. 

Yarnish should be of good quality, and well applied. It can be worked 
so as to give a dead or glossy finish, just as desired. 

Wood-work prepared for filling and varnishing should be secured in 
place by secret nailing as much as possible, and by brads prepared for 
the purpose; when necessary to use putty, it should be colored to match 
the wood. Sound knots in the wood-work are sometimes desirable for 
effect of finish. 

Ebonizing and color-marking is usually done with fine colors ground in 
japan; they dry a dead color, and the bright effect is given bj r the varnish. 

VENTILATION AND WARMING.. 

Thanks to a few persevering sanitarians, attention has been aroused to 
the attendant evils of poor ventilation. Some people feel quite assured 
that all ventilating methods are failures, while we find in experience that 
they all have some points of value, but the use of them is so little under¬ 
stood that they become useless. 

Ventilation implies use of proper warming apparatus, and fuel; and 
to use it with discrimination is the true source of economy, not its disuse. 
Writers often elaborate on all the distinct proportions of good and bad air, 
but with the majority it is of no moment. 

We feel as though we could not too strongly urge upou those preparing 
plans for new buildings, the vital importance of full and ample provisions 
for ventilation and warming. Proper flues for heating, and foul-air pipes 
are a necessity, even in cellar-walls, so it is proper to provide for them in 
planning, for they cannot be provided for afterwards without great cost 
and trouble. 

It does seem as though it was time we had learned to build our houses 
to enjoy them after spending so much upon them, and we should have in 
just as pure air as can be obtained out of doors. Costly appliances are 
not necessary, but motion of air is necessary, that true comfort may be 
attainable. 

Arrangements for ventilation cost but little, when provided for. Open 
grates for ventilation are good, and their woful waste of heat and fuel is 
an item every one notices; but as better health is a consequence, it is wise 
to continue them where you can have nothing better. Our essay, how¬ 
ever, is to those about building, and to them we can earnestly say: Pro- 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


49 


vide liberally for ventilation and warming; study up the subject and apply 
its principles, and if it doesn’t work, it will be because it is out of order 
somewhere. 

An illy ventilated room is colder than one well ventilated, as it is the 
nature of foul air to neutralize the effect of heat on the body, and when 
one suffers from cold extremities in a warm room it is the sure sign of 
imperfect ventilation. 

We caution owners from hasty selection of heating apparatus recom¬ 
mended only by the manufacturers, but to be wise and prove a furnace 
before it is ordered. 

Heating by steam has numerous advantages to health and comfort 
which recommmend it, and we hope to see it in more general use. 

Our remarks may seem to be intended only for expensive houses for 
wealthy people. While they are indeed addressed to them as well as to 
those in moderate circumstances, still ventilating appliances are readily 
adjusted to the cheapest house ever built, and the expense is only in pro¬ 
portion to the cost of the house, and small at that. 

FURNACES AND PIPES. 

Set furnaces are enclosed usually in a room formed of brick, with doors 
set in for coal, ash-pans, air-boxes, and a man-hole; the top covered with 
sheet-iron or tin set on ribs of iron and soldered. It is always well to set 
them down in a pit, bricked around, and the bottom grouted solid in 
cement mortar. They should be at least one foot below the bottom of 
the joists. 

The pipes should all be well formed, set in place, and hung with stout 
wire fastenings to iron hooks; and where they approach nearer than a 
foot to the wood-work the joist should be flashed with tin. All pipes 
should have dampers in them down near the furnace, to prevent the heat 
accumulating in pipes not in use. Those extending up through partitions 
to upper stories should be double, and the space not less than one-half inch 
all around filled with plaster of Paris. 

Wire lathing should be used for the plaster to render to. Where single 
ones are used all the studding and ends of joists on partitions near them 
should be flashed with tin, but even then they are unsafe. 

Whenever possible it is best to use the chimneys for carrying the pipes. 

Registers are in variety, for the floor or side walls. Those with soap¬ 
stone borders and double boxes are the best for floors, and extra boxes 
of tin should be placed around the registers in side walls, all set in plas¬ 
ter of Paris. 


50 


HINTS ON BUILDING. 


FIRE-PROOF BUILDINGS. 

4 

Buildings indestructible by fire have never yet been built, as all material 
is influenced by heat to its destruction, but that we may add preventatives 
and obstacles to its progress is possible and necessary in all kinds of build¬ 
ings ; even frame houses can be made comparatively fire-proof against the 
usual causes of fire, and neglect of proper precautions against draughts 
of air in buildings of iron, stone, or brick will render their destruction 
sure from very trivial causes. 

The first preventative of fire is to effectually close up all systems of 
air-chambers in walls, floors, and roofs, and check all possible con¬ 
tinuations of draft from the lower part upward and through the roof. This 
may be considered by some to mean also a checking of ventilation, but it 
is not so, for ventilation, to be proper, should be regulated by flues of its 
own, constructed for that purpose. Plaster is a most effectual stopper 
to close up the openings referred to, though sometimes a few bricks will 
be needed to help fill in the openings to the spaces. 

Heating pipes should be put so as to clear all wood-work, and as before 
recommended, put in double and plastered between, and timbers flashed 
with sheets of tin. Wood-work is also easily protected by a coat of plas¬ 
ter mixed with ashes. 

Hearths should not be set on wood bottoms, but on brick arches, and 
in sand. 

Outside brick walls and party-walls should all be extended above 
the roof at least one foot, and coped with blue-stone to prevent flames 
from adjoining buildings affecting the roofs. It is also necessary to see 
that all outside cornices, cappings, and appendages are not simply traps 
inviting sparks to set them on fire. 

When constructing a building it is poor policy to neglect these few 
common precautions for the sake of their slight cost. The full amount of 
insurance cannot pay for valuables, whether costly or not, and the long 
illness from colds and nervous prostration of the inmates is an item of 
magnitude for which money cannot pay. So it should be with us a con¬ 
sidered necessity that all parts of a building are finished with the best 
precautions possible against fire, and as even our best efforts may not be 
sufficient against it, means of escape are of equal importance. Inside 
stairways and means of egress are better than exterior ones, and devices 
of all kinds for putting out fires shonld be familiar household appendages. 


/ 


LESTER, POPE & CO., 

42 Asylum Street, Hartford, Conn., 


NTERIOR DECORATORS 


TURKISH AND MOORISH CARPETS AND RUGS, 
PAROUET AND TILE FLOORS, 

MANTELS, TILE HEARTHS, AND TILE FACINGS, 
WALL PAPERS, CEILING DECORATIONS, 
WINDOW SHADES, LACE CURTAINS, 
PORTIERE AND DRAPERY CURTAINS. 


General Furnishers and Decorators. 


IST CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. 

J. Alex. McClunie, 


Landscape Architect, 

FURNISHES 

SURVEYS, PLANS, AND ESTIMATES 

FOR LAYING OUT 

PRIVATE GROUNDS, PARKS, CEMETERIES, 

G^eenhou^e^, Pfopk^ktiii^ 8ed$, i£td. 


P. O. BOX 811 , HARTFORD, CONN. 


















J. W. FISKE, 


21 and 23 Barclay St., 26 and 28 Park Place, 
Corner Church Street, New York, 

MANUFACTURER OF 

ORNAMENTAL IRON and ZINC WORK, 


Fountains, Vases, Statuary, Settees, Etc. 


IRON CRESTINGS, 
FINIALS and BANNERETS, 
LAMP-POSTS and LAMPS, 
For Public and Private Buildings. 

WIRE WORK, 


IRON AND BRASS 

STABLE FIXTURES 

Of Improved Designs, 


RACKS, MANGERS, STALL 
GUARDS, POSTS, 
GUTTERS, Etc. 


For Banks and Offices, 


COPPER WEATHER VANES, 


WINDOW & DOOR GUARDS, 
Of every description, Wrought 
and Cast Iron. 


Over 300 different designs, com¬ 
prising in part, Horses, Cows, 
Roosters, Arrows, Scrolls, Etc. 


Separate Illustrated Catalogues of each line of goods furnished on application. 


HOYES k WIHES, 

MANUFACTURERS OF 





GATED 


OF ALL STYLES, 




Metal Cornices, Moldings, Etc., 

44 CENTRE STREET, NEW YORK. 


ZINC ORNAMENTAL WORK AND METAL 
SPINNING A SPECIALTY. 

We call particular attention to our improved methods of Fire-proofing 
Halls, Theatres, and Business Blocks, developed 
during twenty years’ experience. 

Samples of Decorative Work at Office of J. H. CARPENTER, 
118 Asylum Street, Hartford, Conn. 

















J.B.&.J.M. CORNELL, 



Buildings, Bridges, Roofs, Fronts, 

Girders, Beams, Stairs, Columns, Etc. 

Office, 141 Centre Street, New York. 


C. B. KEOGH & CO., 


Doors, Sashes, and Blinds, 

ENAMELED, EMBOSSED, AND CUT 


GLASS, 

Mantels, Newels, Balusters, 


WOOD MOLDINGS, Etc. 


203 and 205 Canal Street, 


New York. 











ERASTUS PHELPS, 

CARPENTER AND BUILDER, 

183 Pearl Street, Hartford, Conn. 

OFFICE, BANK, and DECORATIVE FITTINGS A SPECIALTY. 
Estimates furnished for all Classes of Buildings. 


HIIBISSELL, 

MASON" and BUILDER. 

ORNAMENTAL PLASTER WORK, 
CORNICES, CENTERS, ETC., 

306 Pearl Street, Hartford, Conn. 

STODDARD FOX, 

188 Sheldon Street, Hartford, Conn., 

CARPENTERS AND BUILDERS. 

Estimates Furnished for all kinds of Work. 

^HARD WOOD AND FINE WORK A SPECIALTY. 

HEALEY & ARNOLD, 
MASOMS AID BUILDERS, 

IMIericLem, Conn. 


ESTIMATES FURNISHED FOR ALL CLASSES OF BUILDINGS. 

















E. W. CLARK & SOIST, 

ROOFERS, 

AND DEALERS IN 

Roofing Materials, Sheathing Felt, English 
Felt, English Concrete Roofing. 

TRINIDAD AND ASPHALT WALKS A SPECIALTY. 

SLATE, TIN, AND GRAVEL ROOFERS. 

OFFICES : 

93 and 95 Pearl St., Hartford, Conn. 41 Broadway, N. Y. 

R. A. CLARK, Manager. 


JAMES AHERN, 

280 Asylum Street, Hartford, Conn., 

Sanitary Plumber. 

SPECIAL ATTENTION PAID TO 

Ventilation of Drain and Soil Pipes, 

WATER CLOSETS, Etc. 

11. I I. GrRIDLEY, 

DEALER IN 

DOORS, WINDOWS,^BLINDS, 

Hard Wood Work a Specialty. 


GLASS, OILS, PAINTS, COLORS, PUTTY, ETC. 

88 Market St., (cor. Temple,) Hartford, Conn. 






SYLVESTER BISSELL, 

]\IA_SOIST BUILDER, 

128 Asylum Street, Hartford, Conn. 

THOS. E. MALONE, 

CTJT STONE WORKS, 

136 Commerce Street, Hartford, Conn. 

A 7 f7 BECKWI TH, 

HOUSE PAINTING, PAPERING, ETC. 

39 Ann Street, Hartford, Conn. 

C OB URN & GA LE, 

CEMENT, LIME, HAIR, DRAIN TILE, Etc., 

145 State Street, Hartford, Conn. 

T HE O D ORE NEWTON, 

MASON AND BUILDER, 

13 East Street, Hartford, Conn. 

WILLIAM COLLINS, ~~ 

STOKE MASON, 

20 Cedar Street, Hartford, Conn. 

H. A. STILLMAN & CO., 

LIME, CEMENT, HAIR, DRAIN TILE, Etc., 

230 State Street, Hartford, Conn. 

JAMES FLANNE RY, 

EXCAVATING, SETTING OF DRAINS, SIDEWALKS, ETC. 

_ 20 Wel ls Street, I Iartford, Conn. 

OWE N S M I T H, 

STOKE CUTTER, 

_29 Commerce Street, Hartford, Conn. 

RICHMOND, GRISWOLD & GLOCK. 

GALVANIZED IRON WORK, TIN ROOFS, GUTTERS, ETC, 

2 and 4 Main Street, Meriden, Conn. 

























W. H. STARR & CO., 

MASONS & PLASTERERS, 

606 Main Street, Hartford. 

THOMAS FLYNN, 

IMI S O IN' & BUILDEB, 

39 Madison Street, Hartford. 

KELLEY & EBENSON, 

HOUSE H=^I3ST TEES, 

60 Sheldon Street, Hartford. 

SAMUEL COLLINS, 
BLUE-STONE YYJR1>, 

151 Charter Oak Street, Hartford. 

Stone Sills, Chimney Caps, and Coping Cut to Order. 
SIDEWALKS AND CURBING LAID AND RESET. 

J. J. COTTER, 

Carpenter and Builder, 

Poquonock, Conn. 

Estimates Given for all Kinds of Work. 

ESTABLISHED 1857 . 

nun. pc. & oo.. 

Slate, Tin, and Gravel Roofing. 

SLATE ROOFS A SPECIALTY. 


Office 162 Pearl Street, 


Hartford. 













H. E. HUBBARD, 

MAKER OF 

Hard Wood Mantels, 

Decorative and other Fine Woodwork 

FOR OFFICES, BANKS, and RESIDENCES. 

Stair IBTa.Ild.ian.g' a, Specialty 

IN ALL ITS BRANCHES. 

Estimates and Designs Furnished. 

STEAM MILLS: 

265 Centre St., Meriden, and 

133 Sheldon St., Hartford. 

Communications to be Addressed to Meriden. 

FOX, BRUSSELARS & C0„ 

PRACTICAL 

j$qsigner L s and ^uri^ish^rs 

IN 

INTERIOR ART DECORATIONS, 

FINE WALL PAPERS, 

WINDOW SHADES, PORTIERS, AND CURTAINS, 
WOOD MANTELS, GRATES, AND FIXTURES, 

Faiance, Objects of Art, and Bronzes, 

French and American Tiles, &c. 

Jlnttgne and JVLodern JlTt G-oods. 

Fresco and Decorative Painting a Specialty. 

240 Main Street, Hartford. 








80 AND 81 ASTOR HOUSE, 

NEW YORK 


ARCHITECTURAL TERRA COTTA, 

Buff Front Brick, 

Superior Fire Brick, 


L. S. GRAVES & SON, 

Sssenger and Freight Elevators, 


CENTER STREET, 

ROCHESTER, N. Y. 

Send for Catalogue. 


ROBERT WALKER, 

DEALER IN 

Paints, Oils, Glass, Etc. 

389 Main Street, Hartford. 

Decorative and Plain Painting, Paper Hanging, Kalsomining, 

Graining, Frescoing, &c. 

Estimates given for work and materials, and satisfaction guaranteed. 

























ATLANTIC 

White Lead and Linseed Oil Company, 

PURE WHITE LEAD. 



The Atlantic White Lead 

Is Manufactured exclusively from the 
best selected Refined Leads, and is ground in Refined 

Linseed Oil. 

Red Lead, Litharge, and Glass Makers’ Lead, 

COMMON AND REFINED. 

PURE LINSEED OIL, 

RAW, REFINED, BOILED. 

ALSO 

A Superior Grade, Exclusively for the Use 

OF 

1 \ 

’VcLmisTx J\lcLn,u,fctctzi~rers. 

ROBEBT COLGATE Sz CO., 


287 Pearl St., New York. 








ms: :e] 

Hartford Blass Water Closet, 

THE MOST PERFECT AND 

Safest in the World ! 



Warranted superior to all others in material, 
construction, operation, sweetness, durability. 

Valve works ecpially well under all pressures, 
and never hammers or chokes. Trapped by double 
metal and water traps. Back pressure or syphon- 
age impossible. Defective plumbing cannot en¬ 
danger the apartment, because the glass closet 
alone guards against every danger. 

Trap and closet above the floor, and go together 
without extra charge. 

J2gr D Send for Illustrated and Descriptive Cir¬ 
cular. 


THE HARTFORD SANITARY PLUMBING CO,, 

70 to 86 Market Street, HARTFORD, CONN. 






















































IN PREPARATION. 

The 

ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS’ POCKET MANUAL, 


J. H. CARPENTER, A. & C. E. 


A VALUABLE POCKET COMPANION FOR ALL PERSONS CONNECTED WITH THE BUILDING 
TRADE | CONTAINING COMPLETE PRACTICAL INFORMATION, AND TABLES OF 
ALL MATERIALS AND LABOR USED IN BUILDING, RULES 
OF MEASUREMENT, ALLOWANCES, ETC. 

Price $ 1 . 50 . 

SOLD BY SUBSCRIPTION. 




















































































